Deborah Fitzgerald, The Business of Breeding: Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).24 24. Deborah Fitzgerald, Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003). Margaret Derry offers discussion of the impact of genetics on livestock breeding, and of breeding on modern genetics. She suggests that genetics contributed little to the practice of breeding until the second half of the twentieth century. Here, of course, big businesses began to rally round and support financially the development of the enterprise. See Margaret E. Derry, Art and Science in Breeding: Creating Better Chickens (Toronto and London: University of Toronto Press, 2012).
25 25. Page Smith and Charles Daniel, The Chicken Book: Being an Inquiry into the Rise and Fall, Use and Abuse, Triumph and Tragedy of Gallus Domesticus (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975). Smith and Daniel described poultry genetics from the 1930s at Kimber Farms in Fremont, California, with chickens bred for meat or eggs in breeding factories called “farms” to keep the public believing that agriculture remained bucolic. Smith and Charles also explore chicken in folklore, medicine and literature, and such cultural phenomena as cock-fighting.
26 26. Roger Horowitz, Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).
27 27. Maryn McKenna, Big Chicken: The Incredible Story of How Antibiotics Created Modern Agriculture and Changed the Way the World Eats (Washington DC: National Geographic, 2017).
28 28. Ruth Harrison, Animal Machines (New York: Ballantine, 1964). See also Karen Sayer, “Animal Machines: The Public Response to Intensification in Great Britain, c. 1960 – c. 1973,” Agricultural History, vol. 87, no. 4 (Fall 2013), pp. 473–501.
29 29. See United Poultry Concerns, “About United Poultry Concerns,” October 12, 2008, at www.upc-online.org/more_about_upc.html, and Karen Davis, Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs (Machipongo, Va.: UPC, 2009).
30 30. Annie Potts, Chicken (London: Reaktion Books, 2012).
31 31. Joseph Barber, Chicken: A Natural History (Princeton University Press, 2017).
32 32. Pew Commission, Putting Meat on the Table, p. 23.
33 33. See, most importantly, Daniel Imhoff, Douglas Tompkins and Roberto Carra, CAFO: The Tragedy of Industrial Animal Factories (2011–13), at www.cafothebook.org/thebook.htm.
34 34. See Harriet Ritvo, “Animal Planet,” Environmental History, vol. 9, no. 2 (Apr. 2004), pp. 204–20, for a survey article on the kinds of issues and questions about animals that environmental historians might ponder, and why. See also Noble Cows and Hybrid Zebras: Essays on Animals and History (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010) for a collection of essays Ritvo has witten on animal–human–nature interactions.
35 35. On this phenomenon in the dairy industry, see Sally McMurry, “The Impact of Sanitation Reform on the Farm Landscape in U.S. Dairying, 1890–1950,” Buildings & Landscapes: Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum, vol. 20, no. 2 (Fall 2013), pp. 22–47.
36 36. Richard Tucker, Insatiable Appetite: The United States and the Ecological Destruction of the Tropical World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). See also Josephson, Industrialized Nature (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2002) and Fish Sticks, Sports Bras and Aluminum Cans (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), both of which indicate that colonial, trade, and other distant agricultural and economic activities have significant impacts on local people and environments.
37 37. Tucker, Insatiable Appetite.
38 38. Hiram M. Drache, “Midwest Agriculture: Changing with Technology,” Agricultural History, vol. 50, no. 1 (Jan., 1976), p. 291.
39 39. Drache, “Midwest Agriculture,” p. 292.
40 40. Drache, “Midwest Agriculture,” p. 299.
41 41. Drache, “Midwest Agriculture,” p. 302.
42 42. Ingolf Vogeler, The Myth of the Family Farm (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981).
43 43. Adam Andrzejewski, “Mapping The U.S. Farm Subsidy $1M Club,” Forbes, August 14, 2018, at www.forbes.com/sites/adamandrzejewski/2018/08/14/mapping-the-u-s-farm-subsidy-1-million-club.
44 44. Berkeley Hill, “The ‘Myth’ of the Family Farm: Defining the Family Farm and Assessing its Importance in the European Community,” Journal of Rural Studies, vol. 9, no. 4 (1993), pp. 359–70.
45 45. MacDonald and McBride, The Transformation of Livestock Agriculture, p. 18.
46 46. Paul Crenshaw, “Thinking of Chickens,” Southwest Review, vol. 97, no. 4 (2012), pp. 556–7.
47 47. Crenshaw, “Thinking of Chickens,” pp. 557–9.
48 48. Crenshaw, “Thinking of Chickens,” p. 560.
49 49. Zhang Min et al. “Global Genomic Diversity and Conservation Priorities for Domestic Animals Are Associated with the Economies of their Regions of Origin,” Scientific Reports, vol. 8, no. 11677 (Aug. 3, 2018), doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30061-0, and Paul Sorene, “The Chicken of Tomorrow (1948): Mankind’s Quest for a Better Hen,” Flashbak, June 21, 2016, at https://flashbak.com/the-chicken-of-tomorrow-1948-mankinds-quest-for-a-better-hen-62821.
50 50. William Muir, Hans Cheng, et al., “Genome-wide Assessment of Worldwide Chicken SNP Genetic Diversity Indicates Significant Absence of Rare Alleles in Commercial Breeds,” PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences), vol. 105, no. 45 (Nov. 11, 2008), pp. 17312–17, doi:10.1073/pnas.0806569105.
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