On the flip side, the contribution of non‐Amharic mother‐tongue writers to broaden the conceptual, cultural, and artistic spectrum of Amharic literature is inestimable.
The final point in this part of the discussion is Amharic literature in the diaspora (an “émigré literature”). Amharic literary nationalism is not exclusively a homeland enterprise. Ethiopian writers living abroad or even those who have changed their nationality are seen persistently portraying their ancestral country in their own ways. This includes the late poet Hailu Gebre‐Yohannes from Stockholm, political satirist Hama Tuma from Paris, one of the best short story writers, Jarso Kirubel, from London, and Amha Asfaw, Fikre Tolosa, Adugnaw Worku, Alemtsehay Wodajo, Tewodros Abebe, and Alemayehu Gebre‐Hiwot from North America, just to name a few. Although there are many reasons why Ethiopians leave their homeland, the most significant migrations occurred in two distinct waves. The first wave was in the 1970s following the coming to power of the Derg regime and the second wave occurred due to the 1991 ethno‐nationalist group ruling pressure.
The Ethiopian diasporic literature in Amharic is mainly produced for that community’s consumption. Of course, the literature does not meet the growing demand of the diaspora population, which is currently estimated to be over three million people (Williams and Williams 2018, 2). The community, especially those residing in North America, which constitutes one of the largest African immigrant groups, uses different mechanisms to fill this gap. They import Ethiopian works of art produced in their homeland; utilize influential radio, television shows, newspapers, blogs, and social media as their cultural platforms; and conduct seasonal literary reading workshops to connect writers with some of their diaspora audiences. In this regard, places such as the poet and artist Alemtsehay Wodajo’s entertainment venue in Washington, DC – “Tayitu Cultural Center” (named for the eponymous heroine Queen Tayitu, wife of Emperor Menelik II) – play a significant role. The center regularly presents mainly poetry readings and plays in Amharic to nourish the youth with core “Ethiopian” national values and to maintain a sense of national integrity. This type of diasporic sensibility and identification is a manifestation of what Benedict Anderson called a long‐distance nationalism.
Amongst other things, Amharic literature in the diaspora treats exile, patriotism, alienation, trauma, and nostalgia. The writers in these waves portray some commonalties in their work as they envision their homeland as a modern, prosperous, and stable nation. However, the vision is mostly painted with memories of pain and suffering. In my opinion, this kind of ambivalence emanates from the writers’ diasporic condition resulting from geographical dislocation, cultural disintegration, and emotional displacement. Most of the writers from the first wave have not returned to their homeland. Hailu Gebre‐Yohannes passed away in 2014 after living overseas for forty years. Tuma, Asfaw, Kirubel, and Worku have been living overseas for over forty years. Gebre‐Yohannes infused patriotism with frustration and indignation in his works. In one of his writings he states:
Since I’m merely physically present in a foreign land
Of course, you have to know, I haven’t been living rather dead!
Asfaw’s collection of poems, Yilalla Denebo (1995), received its title from a traditional funeral ceremony. For anyone who is new to the tradition, the songs and dancing to commemorate the life of the deceased may be mistaken for a wedding. Thus, the title itself shows a state of sudden change from happiness to sadness and life to death – to reiterate, it signifies the collapse of certainty and disillusionment. Tuma (the pen name of renowned politician Iyassu Alemayehu), who is known for his political satire covered with traumatic memories, states that Kedada Cherka (Moon‐Hole, 2000) is “dedicated to those Ethiopian children who were killed by Derg and Weyane.” Worku’s collected poems and essays, Biketnm Tej‐Negn (1990), is almost entirely filled with longing and nostalgia. Tesfa Sintayehu has given the nickname “immigrant collection” to his fictional work, called Tobbia Chewata BeIyerusalem (1989). Wodajo dedicated her collected poems, titled Yemata Injera (the Eleventh‐Hour Blessing, 2009), solely to “immigrants.” The generation that fled the country in the second wave is highly self‐critical. As they witness poverty, disease, tyranny, and corruption in their frequent visits to their country, they courageously submit themselves for cross examination. They also feel guilty by taking on the responsibility for the daily suffering of the people in the country. Abebe’s Fetena YeInba Guzowochch (Trial: Journeys of Tears, 2005), as it resonates in the title, and Gebre‐Hiwot’s Etalem (The Endeared Sister, 2006) are poetic imperatives of such self‐interrogation.
To summarize, there is one fundamental common feature that is shared between both generations, whether they are frustrated or delighted, disillusioned or visionary. Their diasporic imaginary is tremendously national. In brief, the fact that most of these authors chose to write their literary works in Amharic than in their adopted language indicates their decision to pursue a long‐distance nationalism. I think using their native language in their writing goes beyond communicating their vision. It helps them maintain their identity while fulfilling their desire to be connected to their ancestral land, conceptually and emotionally. In essence, this desire gave them the strength to express their condition artistically in their own language. It inspired Ethiopian engineers and entrepreneurs to build on their niche by developing Amharic software and establishing printing presses in their respective countries of residence. All of these contributions and efforts have made Amharic literature a global phenomenon.
Acknowledgments
I owe thanks to my wife Emmua for her love and professional advice and assistance that made the completion of this chapter possible. You were always around and helped me to keep things in perspective.
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18 Zewde,
