sometimes out of concern for potential repercussions but often to improve their own practices or better understand their land. Local farm discussion groups, fishing and hunting clubs, outdoor enthusiasts, and community associations frequently welcome researchers operating in their areas to give talks and explain their findings. This is helpful, both in disseminating your work and in building positive relationships with the community. It also enables them to enact changes in their practices to improve their environment, or to simply better understand it. Good relationships with your hosts are crucial, and good channels of communication are the foundation of building trust.Communication is particularly vital if there is any element of hazard or risk involved. As an example, I was once installing a soil sensor array, which involved a >2 m deep pit. The land owner was fully aware and approved of the project. However, at nightfall on the first day we had not finished the installation and the pit was still open. I rang the land owner to inform him and he had no concerns. But your responsibility may go further than that. During the day I had noticed a house nearby the field with three young children playing in the garden. While you or I may quickly recognize the danger of an open pit, a 6‐yr old probably would not, and may find it all too interesting! I set up warning signs around the area and then politely introduced myself to the family. I presented identification, explained what I was doing on the nearby farm and explained that the pit would be open overnight but that we would return to complete the installation and backfill it in the morning. As a result, I could rest easily that evening knowing that I had alerted the young family to the potential hazard and taken steps to mitigate the risk.You may be conducting fieldwork in a public or common area. It is best to consult your local authorities (e.g., county council, park ranger, etc.) if this is the case. Your research institute may have ongoing agreements or relationships that can help you in this, but if you are proposing entirely new research at a site that has not previously been used by you or your colleagues it is best to provide a clear and comprehensive description of what you are planning to do and any related considerations. Again, written permission is important. Don't assume that it is permissible to do whatever you have planned in a public area. You may need to file permits, seek derogation, or to provide advance public notice, particularly if your planned fieldwork is invasive or disruptive to other people, or is perceived as being so.Maybe you'll be fortunate enough to do research in an exciting or dramatic location; the Antarctic, rainforests, areas of conservation. Or perhaps in areas that are particularly dangerous, such as radioactive or contaminated zones. You may need permission or simply to inform the department or agency responsible for those areas. Similarly, if you are traveling abroad for research make sure you have the appropriate Visa. This will in many cases not be the same as a holiday or work visa that you may be familiar with. If you encounter any difficulties be prepared to contact your embassy.
References
1 Burt, T.P. and McDonnell, J.J. (2015). Whither field hydrology? The need for discovery science and outrageous hydrological hypotheses. Water Resources Research 51, 5919–5928.
2 Kirkby, M.J. (ed.) (2004). Geomorphology: Critical Concepts in Geography. Volume II. London: Routledge: Hillslope Geomorphology.
3 Maskall, J. and Stokes, J. (2008). Designing Effective Fieldwork for the Environmental and Natural Sciences. GEES Subject Centre Learning and Teaching Guide. London: GEES Subject Centre.
4 Read, D.J. (2003) Towards Ecological relevance — Progress and pitfalls in the path towards an understanding of mycorrhizal functions in nature. In: van der Heijden M.G.A., I.R. Sanders (eds.) Mycorrhizal Ecology. Ecological Studies (Analysis and Synthesis), 157. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
2 Types of Fieldwork
Experimental Design
Plot Experiment
A plot experiment consists of treatments and controls arranged in experimental units of specified area, measuring the effects of those treatments (usually over time) and applying statistical analyses (Figs. 2.1–2.3). Experimental units are the individual plots or pots to which experimental treatments and their replication are independently applied (Fig . 2.4). Plot experiments are very common in agricultural research such as crop and fertilizer trials, studies of vehicle effects, and leaching and runoff studies. A major advantage of this experimental approach is that it allows multiple treatments and combinations thereof to be examined at the same time. Plot experiments are well suited to statistical analyses provided sufficient replication of plots is achieved. Individual plots can receive a variety of different measurements that can be repeated across time. For example, a plot trial used to investigate grass yield under different soil phosphorus indices could include measurements of crop (total yield, dry matter, and nutrient concentration), soil (phosphorus concentration, soil moisture), and water (nutrient concentrations in pore water in the root zone) parameters. The variety of measurements would allow a comprehensive understanding to be developed, while repetition over time may support statistical analyses. It is best to have multiple plots receiving identical treatments as natural heterogeneity of soil and landscape, even over relatively small areas, can influence measurements. Another consideration in plot studies is “edge effect.” This occurs where plots located at the edge of a row or block are subject to slightly different conditions than those in the center and may be less buffered from conditions in the rest of the field.
Fig. 2.1 Plot and row experiments at a crops research station.
Source: Colum Kennedy, Teagasc.
Fig. 2.2 Signs like these can be helpful in identifying which plots receive certain treatments.
Source: Jaclyn Fiola.
Fig. 2.3 Care should be taken when harvesting field trials to accurately record yields without damaging the plot. Make sure that your mower has appropriate tyre pressure and that the blades are set to the correct height.
Source: Sara Vero.
Fig. 2.4 Example of a field plot layout including four blocks, each with five treatments and one control. Treatments within each block are randomized.
Source: Sara Vero.
The size of plots can vary immensely, from a couple of square meters to “strip” plots, encompassing entire crop rows or even fields or parcels measuring several hectares. Smaller plots allow more treatments to be applied but may suffer from greater edge effects and the measurements within each plot will be more subject to site‐specific variables. Larger plots or strips may
