interest in others; work on creating relationships to promote communication and trust.
Behavioral Approach
Leadership studies from the 1930s by Kurt Lewin and colleagues at Iowa State University conveyed information about three leadership styles based on the leader's behavior that are still widely recognized today: autocratic, democratic, and laissez‐faire leadership (Lewin, 1939; Lewin & Lippitt, 1938; Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939). Autocratic leadership involves centralized decision making, with the leader making decisions and using power to command and control others. Democratic leadership is participatory leadership, with authority delegated to others. To be influential, the democratic leader uses expert power and the power base afforded by having close, personal relationships. The third leadership style, laissez‐faire leadership, is passive and permissive, and the leader defers decision making. Lewin (1939) contrasted these styles and concluded that autocratic leaders were associated with high‐performing groups, but that close supervision was necessary and feelings of hostility were often present in these groups. Democratic leaders engendered positive feelings in their groups and performance was strong, whether the leader was present or not. Low productivity and feelings of frustration were associated with laissez‐faire leaders.
Behavioral leadership studies from the University of Michigan and from Ohio State University led to the identification of two basic leader behaviors: job‐centered behaviors and employee‐centered behaviors. Effective leadership was described as having a focus on the human needs of subordinates and was called employee‐centered leadership (Griffin & Moorhead, 2014). Job‐centered leaders were viewed as less effective because of their focus on schedules, costs, and efficiency, resulting in a lack of attention to developing work groups and high‐performance goals (Griffin & Moorhead, 2014).
The researchers at Ohio State focused their efforts on two dimensions of leader behavior: initiating structure and consideration. Initiating structure involves an emphasis on the work to be done, a focus on the task, and production. Leaders who focus on initiating structure are concerned with how work is organized and on the achievement of goals. Leader behavior includes planning, directing others, and establishing deadlines and details of how work is to be done. For example, a nurse demonstrating the leader behavior of initiating structure could be a charge nurse who, at the beginning of a shift, makes out a patient assignment.
The dimension of consideration involves activities that focus on the employee and emphasize relating and getting along with people. Leader behavior focuses on the well‐being of others. The leader is involved in creating a relationship that fosters communication and trust as a basis for respecting other people and their potential contributions. A nurse demonstrating consideration behavior will take the time to talk with coworkers, be empathetic, and show an interest in them as people.
The leader behaviors of initiating structure and consideration define four leadership styles:
Low initiating structure, low consideration
High initiating structure, low consideration
High initiating structure, high consideration
Low initiating structure, high consideration
The Ohio State University studies associate the high initiating structure–high consideration leader behaviors with better performance and satisfaction outcomes than the other styles. This leadership style is considered effective, although it is not appropriate in every situation.
Real World Interview
It is important that beginning nurses see themselves as leaders. Leadership doesn't mean you have to have an administrative title. The central task of leadership is catalyzing others to achieve shared values in a complex world that is constantly changing and requiring us to design new ways of achieving our goals. This is a description of what is required of nurses each day, every day.
Angela Barron McBride, PhD, RN, FAAN
Distinguished Professor‐Dean Emerita
Indiana University School of Nursing
Indianapolis, Indiana
Evidence from the Literature
Citation: Buresh, B. and Gordon, S. (2013). From silence to voice: What nurses
