limits and do not upset important stakeholders. A key factor in the Bolsa’s political appeal is that it does not challenge enshrined social protections to the middle and upper classes. Although Brazil’s post-authoritarian governments have devoted new attention and resources to the social area, they have done little to narrow the stark differences in people’s effective access to public entitlements and social programs. One implication is that poorer groups with little political influence may be left without a strong political voice to defend the services or tracks that they alone occupy, while their better-off counterparts will have the means to defend their own spear of entitlements. For Brazil’s democracy, overcoming this historical division is an essential step toward providing meaningful citizenship to all.
References
Andrews, George Reid (1992). “Racial Inequality in Brazil and the United States: A Statistical Comparison”. Journal of Social History, 26(2): 229–263.
Bartholo, L. (2016). Bolsa Familia and Gender Relations: National Survey Results. Policy Research Brief No.55. Brasilia: International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth.
Beltrão, K. and M. S. Novellion (2002). Alfabetização por raça e sexo no Brasil: evolução no período 1940–2000. Rio de Janeiro: Ence, IBGE.
Beltrao, K. I. and J. E. Diniz Alves (2009). “Reversal of gender gap in Brazilian education in the 20th century”, Cardenos de Pesquina, 39(136).
Cardoso. A. R. and D. Verner (2006). School Drop-Out and Push-Out Factors in Brazil: The Role of Early Parenthood, Child Labour, and Poverty. Bonn: IZA, Discussion Paper No. 2515 [in Klaveren et al. (2009). An Overview of Women’s Work and Employment in Brazil, Decisions for Life MDG3 Project, Country Report No. 12, University of Amsterdam/Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Labour Studies (AIAS)].
Cunha, L. A. (2000). “Ensino superior e universidade no Brasil”. In E. M. T. Lopes and L. M. F. C. G. Faria Veiga (Eds.), 500 anos de educação no Brasil. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, pp. 151–204.
de la Briere, B. and L. B. Rawlings (2006). Examining Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: A Role for Increased Social Inclusion? Social Protection and Labor. Discussion Paper No. 0603. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/20204.
Figueiredo, A. (2015). “The work of Carl Hasenbalg and its importance for the study of the relations of racial inequalities in Brazil”, Society and State, 30(1).
Hahner, J. (1981). A Mulher brasileira e suas lutas sociais e políticas: 1850–1937. São Paulo: Brasiliense.
Heime, F.-W. (1975). “Education and politics in Brazil”, Comparative Education Review, 19(1): 51–67.
Htun, M. N. (2003). “Women and democracy”. In J. I. Dominguez and M. Shifter (Eds.), Constructing Democratic Governance in Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, pp. 120–121. https://malahtun.files.wordpress.com/2018/06/htun-2003-women-and-democracy.pdf.
Hunter, W. and N. B. Sugiyama (2009). “Democracy and social policy in Brazil: Advancing basic needs, preserving privileged interests”, Latin American Politics and Society, 51(2): 39.
Klaveren, M., M. H. Williams, K. Tijdens, and N. R. Martin (2009). An Overview of Women’s Work and Employment in Brazil. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, Working Paper 09–83.
Kowarick, L. and M. Campanario (1986). “Sao Paulo: The price of a world city status”, Development & Change, 17: 159–174.
Lovell, P. A. (2000). “Gender, race, and the struggle for social justice in Brazil”, Latin American Perspectives, 27(6): 85–102.
Merrick, T. W. and D. H. Graham (1979). Population and Economic Development in Brazil, 1800 to Present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
Molyneux, Maxine (2006). “Mothers at the Service of the New Poverty Agenda: Progresa/Oportunidades, Mexico’s Conditional Transfer Programme”, 40(4): 425–449.
Naercio, M. F. and L. Scorzafave (2012). Employment and Inequality in Brazil. https://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/42546065.pdf.
National Native News (2017). http://nativenews.net/health-wellness-indigenous-way.
Oliviera, L. E. et al. (1985). O “lugar do negro” na forca de trabalho. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE.
Ribeiro, A. I. M. (2000). “Mulheres educadas na colônia”. In E. M. T. Lopes, L. M. F. Faria, and C. G. Veiga (Eds.), 500 anos de educação no Brasil. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, pp. 79–94.
Romanelli, O. O. (2001). História da educação no Brasil (1930/1973). Petrópolis: Vozes.
Skidmore, T. E. (1992). Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil. Notre Dame, Indiana: Kellogg Institute of International Studies. # Working Paper 173.
Telles, E. and M. Paixao (2013). Affirmative Action in Brazil. LASA Forum, 44(2).
Telles, E., R. D. Flores, and F. Urrea-Giraldoc (2015). “Pigmentocracies: Educational inequality, skin color and census ethnoracial identification in eight Latin American countries”, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 40: 39–58.
Therborn, G. (2004). Between Sex and Power: Family in the World, 1900–2000. London: Routledge.
Wetzel, D. and V. Economico (2013). Bolsa Familia: Brazil’s Quiet Revolution. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Wood, C. H. and J. A. M. de Carvalho (1988). The Demography of Inequality in Brazil. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1Indigenous people constitute a majority of the population in Bolivia and Guatemala and a significant minority in Ecuador and Peru. Afro-descendants are a majority in the Dominican Republic and Panama; they form 45% of the population in Brazil and more than 10% of the population in Colombia, Venezuela, and Nicaragua.
2Double discrimination is when a person or a group is targeted for more than one form of discrimination. In Brazil, women face discrimination for being women, poor, and/or being of say Afro-descent or belonging to the indigenous groups.
3Judith A. Morrison in her article entitled “Behind the Numbers: Race and Ethnicity in Latin America” in the Americas Quarterly (2016) examines the conditions of the indigenous and ethnic groups from Latin America and the initiatives made by various organizations and governments to deal with them. She further delineates the success and the failures of these groups to find a voice for themselves within these countries. www.americasquarterly.com.
4The term “racial democracy” refers to a certain pattern of race relations in Brazil. Specifically, it suggests that Brazilian race relations have developed in a tolerant and conflict-free manner, in contrast to the presumed hostile form of race relations
