is displayed by American culture. Within American culture, FOOTBALL established itself as a combination of SOCCER and RUGBY. Characteristic of the sport is the oval shape of the ball as well as the case that, at certain times, players may use both hands and feet to interact with the ball, and, finally, an entirely different game experience for both player and spectator: “Perhaps most fundamentally of all, soccer offers modes of storytelling and narrative structures that the American sporting public finds unsatisfactory.” (Ibid., loc. 133)
17 Ibid., loc. 182.
18 See ibid., loc. 269.
19 Ibid., loc. 422.
20 Ibid., loc. 490.
21 Ibid., loc. 492.
22 Ibid., loc. 516.
23 Ibid., loc. 1119.
24 Ibid., loc. 818.
25 Ibid., loc. 822-824.
26 Ibid., loc. 809.
27 Ibid., loc. 1394.
28 Ibid., loc. 1436.
29 Ibid., loc. 1344.
30 Ibid., loc. 1442.
31 Ibid., loc. 1355.
32 Grieves, Kevin: “On This Day in History: First Live Radio Broadcast of a Soccer Match, 1927,” The Modern Historian, January 23, 2009; http://modernhistorian.blogspot.de/2009/01/on-this-day-in-history-first-live-radio.html
33 N. N.: “Happened on This Day—16 September,” news.BBC, September 16, 2002; http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/funny_old_game/2260280.stm
34 N. N.: “Crown Soccer Special,” The International Arcade Museum at Museum of the Game o.J.; http://www.arcade-museum.com/game_detail.php?game_id=16047
35 N. N.: “EA Sports FIFA Soccer Franchise Sales Top 100 Million Units Lifetime,” Business Wire, November 4, 2010; http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101104006782/en - .VH8zdIs2JVo
36 A good example of the Industrial path from activity to passivity can be seen in the radio, which was originally developed as a medium with two-way channels (radio, after all, means a device that sends and receives radio signals) and only mutated after the First World War in the process of its popularization into a receiver. On the evolution of the broadcast medium radio from the amateur radio movement, see Campbell-Kelly, Martin/Aspray, William: Computer: A History of the Information Machine, New York: Basic Books 1996, p. 234 ff.
37 The digital as a quaternary medium has already been addressed by Fassler, Manfred: Was ist Kommunikation?, Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag 1997, p. 117.
38 The following game engines have been and continue to be of particular importance for the history of games: the Unreal Engine (Epic Games, since 1998), the CryEngine (Crytek, since 2004) and the Unity Engine (Unity, since 2005).
39 See for example: Friedberg, Anne: Window Shopping: Cinema and the Postmodern, Berkeley: University of California Press 1993.
40 See for the term Knowledge Worker: Drucker, Peter F.: Post-Capitalist Society, New York NY: HarperBusiness 1993. And to the term Symbolic Analyst: Reich, Robert B.: The Work of Nations: Preparing Ourselves for 21st-century Capitalism, New York: A.A. Knopf 1991.
41 Pross: Medienforschung, p. 104.
42 Turkle, Sherry: Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet, New York: Simon & Schuster 1995, p. 22.
3 Procedural Turn (since the 1950s)
“In the historical blink of an eye, video games have colonized our minds and invaded our screens.”
SIMON EGENFELDT-NIELSEN ET AL.1
QUADRUPLICATE ORIGIN OF DIGITAL GAMES
An affinity between games and digital computers had been noted many times before Eric Zimmerman’s landmark ludic manifesto of 2013.2 Jesper Juul, for example, argued that both share several qualities, in particular transmediality and regularity: “[G]ames are not tied to a specific set of material devices, but to the processing of rules.”3 The use of computers for the execution of those rules, however, enables the creation of games that follow “rules more complex than humans can handle.”4 The very same observation—at first, merely a hope—was made at the dawn of digital games. Their origin in the mid-20th century is marked by the convergence of four different interests:
1 the scientific pursuit of artificial intelligence;
2 the military-economic desire for the simulation of real events in order to develop risk-free, affordable training, particularly in air and space travel;
3 the player’s wish for acceleration and facilitation of the complicated and lengthy processes associated with analog games, specifically so-called War Games and other strategy games;
4 the wish to use the new universal machine, the computer, in a playful manner, i.e., to create new forms of play impossible in older analog media.
The
