Australienne: introductionécologique et entomologique by P. Jolivet (1971; in Cahiers du Pacifique (Paris) 15: 41–70).
More recent reviews, with particular reference to conservation, include Papua New Guinea Conservation Needs Assessment (1993, [Port Moresby]), ed. B. M. Beehler; Papua New Guinea Country Study on Biological Diversity (1994, [Port Moresby]), ed. N. Sekhran and S. Miller; and Lokakarya penentuan prioritas konservasi keanekaragaman hayati Irian Jaya [Biak, 7–12 January 1997]: laporan akhir/ The Irian Jaya Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Workshop [Biak, 7–12 January 1997]: Final Report (1999, Washington, D.C.), ed. J. Supriatna. All are generously furnished with tables and many maps from which some idea of the present state of knowledge can be gained; they form parts of chapters (or sections) on biodiversity (the 1993 report features treatments of individual biotic groups or environments). For plants may be added the chapter on New Guinea by P. F. Stevens (pp. 120–132) in Floristic inventory of tropical countries (1989, New York), ed. D. G. Campbell and H. D. Hammond.
SERIAL PUBLICATIONS AND PERIODICALS
Important general series are Nova Guinea (1909–1966, Leiden); Results of the Arch-bold Expeditions (American Museum of Natural History, and (for plants) the New York Botanical Garden and the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University)—the papers in the AMNH Bulletin being numbered; the several numbers of the CSIRO Land Research Series pertaining to present-day Papua New Guinea; the Christensen Research Institute Publications; and the Wau Ecology Institute Handbooks. Useful for exploration and topography (and rich in maps) are Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten (1888–1929, Berlin) and its Ergänzungshefte (1908–1930, Berlin) and, for German New Guinea, Nachrichten über Kaiser-Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel (1885–1998). For British New Guinea (and Papua) the Annual Reports for 1884–1885 to 1913–1914 similarly contain much that is useful, with some specifically biotic appendices.
Current and past outlets in Australia include the publications of Queensland Museum, Queensland Herbarium (Austrobaileya), University of Queensland, Australian Museum, South Australian Museum, National Herbarium of New South Wales (Telopea), Australian Journal of Systematic Botany, and the Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Elsewhere, for Asia Gardens Bulletin, Singapore, and Reinwardtia and its predecessors (Bogor) may also be mentioned, along with the Bulletins of the National Science Museum (Tokyo) and Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory. In Britain Kew Bulletin as well as the Bulletins of the British Museum (Natural History)/ Natural History Museum have run results based in whole or in part on collections from New Guinea. On the European continent Flora Malesiana (1948–, now based at Leiden) is a key reference but still far from complete; for the nearer term, much research has appeared in the serial Blumea, another Leiden-based publication. Beiträge zur Flora von Papuasien (1912–1942, with 150 contributions in Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie) remains historically important, along with some other German publications including Pflanzenreich as well as those from the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin. For bryophytes, Acta Botanica Fennica (Helsinki) embodies a substantial amount of recent research. In the United States of America, for entomology mention should be made of several Bishop Museum series (Pacific Insects; Pacific Insects Monographs; Journal of Medical Entomology; and Insects of Micronesia). For zoology in general there have been many outlets, but because of the Archbold Expeditions the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History has been very significant.
Local journals include those of the (now defunct) Papua New Guinea Scientific Society; the PNG Agricultural Journal (now PNG Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries); the PNG Medical Journal; and Science in New Guinea. The PNG Wildlife Division reports as well as the Botanical Bulletins of the PNG Division of Botany may also be mentioned.
EXPLORATION
For general exploration through the early 1960s, the best single reference is New Guinea: the last unknown by G. Souter (1963, Sydney). A useful earlier review (to 1934) by C. C. F. M. le Roux appears in Klein’s Nieuw-Guinée (1, 1935; see above). Valuable for expeditions, individuals and localities up to 1902 is the very detailed Entdeckungsgeschichte von Neu-Guinea by A. Wichmann (1909–1912, Leiden; in Nova Guinea, 1–2). All three works are well documented.
Botanical exploration (for Malesia in general) is covered by M. J. van Steenis-Kruseman in series I of Flora Malesiana (1, 1950; 5, 1958; 7, 1974) with later coverage in Flora Malesiana Bulletin. For zoology, entomology, and marine biology, there is no single source, although monographs and reviews of major groups sometimes include historical sections.
"Bioinventory"—a current successor to "primary" and most "secondary" biotic exploration—is usefully aired in W. Takeuchi and M. Golman, Floristic documentation imperatives: some conclusions from contemporary surveys in Papua New Guinea (in Sida 19: 445–468. 2001) and A. Allison, Biological surveys—new perspectives in the Pacific (in Organisms, Diversity and Evolution 3: 103–110. 2003). Finally, reference may be made to The natural world of New Guinea: hopes, realities and legacies by the present writer (pp. 89–138 in Nature in its greatest extent: Western science in the Pacific (1988, Honolulu), ed. R. MacLeod and P. F. Rehbock).
Acknowledgments
For their 1982 chapter, Frodin and Gressitt were indebted for assistance to Drs. F. R. Fosberg, L. B. Holthuis, P. Raven, P. van Royen, J. J. H. Szent-Ivany, and to curators and librarians of the Bishop Museum, California Academy of Sciences, American Museum of Natural History, Museum of Comparative Zoology, the University of Papua New Guinea, the Rijksherbarium (Leiden), and others. The present revision has been entirely the work of the writer, who here acknowledges the facilities of the Herbarium and Library of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as well as some assistance through personal communications.
Marshall, A. J., and Beehler, B. M. (eds.). 2006. The Ecology of Papua. Singapore: Periplus Editions.
1.3. The Socio-cultural Plurality of Papuan Society
J. R. MANSOBEN
The Socio-cultural Diversity of Papuan People
THR PROVINCE OF PAPUA (as construed to include all of western New Guinea) is the largest in Indonesia (416,000 km2, or three times the size of Java). Within this expansive area, two million people live at the lowest population density in Indonesia (approximately 4 persons per km2; 1999 census data). Despite this relatively small population size, Papua exhibits a much greater diversity of ethnicities and cultures than any other Indonesian province. This chapter is an overview of the variation in language, social structure, leadership systems, religion, livelihood systems, land tenure system, orientation of cultural values, and work ethic in this highly diverse province. Although a complete review of these diverse elements would fill many volumes, the information given here may help provide some insight into Papua’s rich cultural and social heritage, and may assist in the design of suitable and sustainable programs for the development of Papua and its peoples.
Languages
According to language experts at the Summer Institute for Linguistics, approximately 269 living local languages are spoken in Papua (Ethnologue Website). Language provides a means of communication as well as a symbol of group identity, suggesting that Papua contains a minimum of 269 distinct ethnic groups.
Papua’s languages are typically classified into two large groups, or mother languages: Austronesian and Non-Austronesian (often called Papuan). The Austrone-sian mother language group is comprised of languages spoken by coastal communities (e.g., Biak, Wandammen, Waropen, Maya). The Non-Austronesian (or Papuan) language group contains languages spoken by people that live in remote areas in the center of the island, from the western Vogelkop to the eastern tip of New Guinea (e.g., Meybrat, Dani, Ekari, Asmat, Muyu, and Sentani).
