Sun, R., Lawther, J.M., Banks, W.B., Influence of alkaline pre-treatments on the cell wall components of wheat straw. Ind. Crops. Prod., 4, 2, 127, 1995.
65. Martın, C., Klinke, H.B., Thomsen, A.B., Wet oxidation as a pre-treatment method for enhancing the enzymatic convertibility of sugarcane bagasse. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 40, 3, 426, 2007.
66. Banerjee, S., Sen, R., Pandey, R.A., Evaluation of wet air oxidation as a pre-treatment strategy for bioethanol production from rice husk and process optimization. Biomass Bioenergy, 33, 12, 1680, 2009.
67. Martın, C., Marcet, M., Thomsen, A.B., Comparison between wet oxidation and steam explosion as pre-treatment methods for enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. Bioresources, 3, 3, 670, 2008.
68. Li, C., Knierim, B., Manisseri, C., Comparison of dilute acid and ionic liquid pre-treatment of switchgrass:biomass recalcitrance, delignification and enzymatic saccharification. Bioresour. Technol., 101, 13, 4900, 2010.
69. Carrasco, J.E., Saiz, M.A.C., Navarro, A., Soriano, P., Saez, F., Martinez, J.M., Effects of dilute acid and steam explosion pre-treatments on the cellulose structure and kinetics of cellulosic fraction hydrolysis by dilute acids in lignocellulosic materials. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 45–46, 1, 23, 1994.
70. Converti, A., Del Borghi, A., Arni, S., Molinari, F., Linearized kinetic models for the simulation of the mesophilic anaerobic digestion of pre-hydrolyzed woody wastes. Chem. Eng. Technol., 22, 5, 429, 1999.
71. Saxena, R.C., Adhikari, D.K., Goyal, H.B., Biomass-based energy fuel through biochemical routes: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 13, 167, 2009.
72. Pandey, A., Soccol Carlos, R., Nigam, P., Soccol Vanete, T., Biotechnological potential of agro-industrial residues I: Sugarcane bagasse. Bioresour. Technol., 74, 69, 2000.
73. Cho, N.-S., Shin, W., Jeong, S.-W., Leonowicz, A., Degradation of lignosulfonate by fungal laccase with low molecular mediators degradation of lignosulfonates. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc., 25, 10, 1551, 2004.
74. Motaung, T.E. and Anandjiwala, R.D., Effect of alkali and acid treatment on thermal degradation kinetics of sugarcane bagasse. Ind. Crops Prod., 74, 472–477, 2015.
75. Rocha, G.J.M., Martin, C., Soares, I.B., Maior, A.M.S., Baudel, H.M., Abreu, C.A.M., Dilute mixed-acid pre-treatment of sugarcane bagasse for ethanol production. Biomass Bioenergy, 35, 663, 2011.
76. Song, Y., Mobley, J.K., Motagamwala, A.H., Isaacs, M., James, A., Dumesic, J.R., Lee, A.F., Wilson, K., Crocker, M., Gold-catalyzed conversion of lignin to low molecular weight aromatics. Chem. Sci., 9, 8127, 2018.
77. Vander Poll, E.C., Bakker, R.R., Baets, P., Eggink, G., By-products resulting from lignocellulose pre-treatment and their inhibitory effect on fermentations for (bio)chemicals and fuels. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 98, 23, 9579, 2014.
78. A.W. Ludwig and C.H. Stout, Plywood process and product wherein the adhesive comprises a lignosulfonate–phenol–formaldehyde reaction products. U.S. Patent 3,658,638, 1972.
79. Peng, W. and Riedl, B., The chemorheology of phenol–formaldehyde thermoset resin and mixtures of the resin with lignin fillers. Polymer, 35, 1280, 1994.
80. Popp, J.L., Kirk, T.K., Dordick, J.S., Enzymic modification of lignin for use as a phenolic resin. Enzyme Microb. Technol., 13, 964, 1991.
81. Cetin, N.S. and Ozman, N., Use of organosolv lignin in phenol-formaldehyde resins for particleboard production I. Organosolv lignin modified resins. Int. J. Adhes. Adhes., 22, 477, 2002.
82. A. AfzaliArdakan, J.D. Gelorme, L.C. Kosbar, Methods of fabricating cross-linked biobased materials and structures fabricated therewith. U.S. Patent 6,339,116, 2002.
83. Anon, The world market for residual lyes from the manufacture of wood pulp and lignin sulfonates excluding tall oil: A 2005 global trade perspective, Icon Group International Inc., San Diego, USA, 2004.
84. Felby, C., Thygesen, L.G., Sanadi, S., Barsberg, S., Native lignin for bonding of fibre boards evaluation of bonding mechanisms in boards made from laccase-treated fibres of beech (Fagus sylvatica). Ind. Crops Prod., 20, 181, 2004.
85. Cazacu, G., Mihaies, M., Pascu, C., Profire, L., Kowarskik, A.L., Vasile, C., Polyolefin/lignosulfonate blends. Macromol. Mater. Eng., 289, 880, 2004.
86. Gosselink, R.J.A., Snijder, M.H.B., Kranenbarg, A., Keijsers, E.R.P., de Jong, E., Stigsson, L.L., Characterisation and application of NovaFiber lignin. Ind. Crops Prod., 20, 191, 2004.
87. Rusu, M. and Tudorachi, N., Biodegradable composite materials based on polyethylene and natural polymers I. Mechanical and thermal properties. J. Polym. Eng., 19, 355, 1999.
88. Baumberger, S., Starch–lignin films, in: Chemical Modification, Properties and Usage of Lignin, T.Q. Hu, (Ed.), pp. 1–20, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, London, 1999.
89. Ganewatta, M.S., Lokupitiya, H.N., Tang, C., Lignin Biopolymers in the Age of Controlled Polymerization. Polymers, 11, 1176, 2019, https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11071176
1 *Corresponding author: [email protected]
3
Biofuels and Fine Chemicals From Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Sustainable and Circular Economy
Sushma1, Shivangi Chamoli1, Sreedevi Upadhyayula2 and Firdaus Parveen2,3*
1Department of Vocational Studies and Skill Development, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, India
2Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, Delhi, India
3Imperial College of London, White City, London, United Kingdom
Abstract
Biofuels and fine chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass have opened the path to overcome the problems associated with the depletion of fossil fuels and global warming. Biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass offered the fuels in all states of matter such as solid, liquid, and gaseous. The availability of biomass due to its fast growth and underutilization in other processes makes the transformation of biomass to biofuel sustainable with no or minimum carbon footprints, hence contributing towards the environment. Biofuels can be obtained from lignocellulosic biomass by pyrolysis, thermochemical processing, and combustion. This chapter focuses on different types of biomass, methods of preparation, and sustainability.
Keywords: Biomass, biofuels, pyrolysis, gasification, aqueous phase reforming
3.1 Introduction
The dependence on fossil fuel is increasing due to over population and industrialization to sustain the overgrowth of the population. The depletion of fossil reserves limits the availability
