is neither greed nor avarice. Where there is peace and meditation, there is neither anxiety nor doubt.105
The Crusades began at the end of the eleventh century in an attempt to reverse Muslim successes in conquering much of the Middle East, Northern Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula – and to drive what the Pope considered infidels out of the Holy Land. Their stated intent was to spread the Christian principles of charity and compassion, but they practiced extreme violence, including the slaughter of those who got in their way including many Jews, Muslims and Christians. The first Crusade captured Jerusalem in 1099, but it was recaptured in 1187 by Saladin, the Muslim leader who commanded armies throughout the Middle East. Although the Crusades were not successful at reclaiming the Holy Land, working together toward a common cause increased the identification of many with the idea of a unified Europe.106
Louis IX (later Saint Louis) of France went on two Crusades, financing the first by taking land from Jews. His grandson, Philip IV (le Bel) established an independent Papacy starting with Clement V in Avignon in 1309 after a tax dispute with Boniface VIII of Rome.107 Philip also was the first to convene the Estates General in 1302, ostensibly an advisory body, composed of Clergy, Nobility and Commoners, but actually a means by which the king raised revenue. The Estates General met only periodically and when called.108
By the twelfth century the Church had established a central canon law and moral authority that superseded the laws of many governments. In the Eastern Church, bishops continued to be chosen by rulers, which had the effect of localizing the laws.109
English common law developed slowly after the conquest by William I of Normandy in 1066. William and subsequent kings traveled about the country enforcing laws that were intended to be fairly administered throughout the realm. Eventually a circuit of judges was trained to enforce these laws as equitably as possible.110
England had been organized into shires before 1066. The shire reeve (sheriff) became the ruler of each shire, as well as representative of the king. All freemen were required to attend meetings to discuss local issues, particularly grievances, in an effort to resolve them. This was a much more egalitarian model than existed in the rest of Europe at the time. A system called the hundreds (each composed of a hundred farm estates) led to the establishment of the jury system. Eventually royal courts replaced local jurisdictions.111
Henry II, great-grandson of William, reigned 1154-89 and brought effective rule to England after a series of weak monarchs. His descendants – the Plantagenet dynasty – lasted two hundred years. He traveled throughout his empire to maintain and administer justice and expand English common law.112
In Western Europe, despite high birth mortality rates, women began to marry later and have fewer children than in other parts of the world. More were in the work force. Although western countries were far from totally democratic, women often were recognized for attributes other than just child-bearing. Women in England were allowed to hold and dispose of property.113
Education, for those who received it, was mainly the domain of the Church, which meant a considerable dose of religion along with writing and history.114 The center of European theological studies was Paris. Peter Abelard, in the twelfth century, taught the use of “ceaseless questioning,” via Aristotle, to approach God, and that an accurate description of God is beyond us because of the limits of language.115 Thomas Aquinas maintained, in the thirteenth century, that the existence of God can be apprehended by a mystical understanding that transcends reason: “And just as the soul exists wholly everywhere in the body, so God exists wholly in each and every thing.”116
Europe’s economy still was primarily agricultural, although poverty became less prevalent as the era of serfdom ended. When pilgrims came to town for religious feast days they also brought their wares to market. The large Gothic cathedrals with their spires and transepts reaching up to the heavens presented a respite from the routine labors of everyday life. They provided a glimpse of the holy for those who were awe-struck by the magnificent architecture that – along with the rituals performed within – represented God on earth.117
Along with a greater acknowledgement of people’s needs, a gradual increase in democratization took place. In many towns laws were administered by jurists who presided over disputes. Town lords ruled, but greater liberties were granted and exercises in self-governance were introduced, such as in the town of Nimes in France, which agreed to the election of counsels in 1198. Examples in England include the granting of “customs” – similar to a constitution – by Henry I to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the granting of “royal privilege” to London in 1155.118
In Eastern Europe, Hungary became a Christian nation in the twelfth century, as did Poland and Bohemia. Eastern Europe in general became a Christian region, although the borders between countries there would not be stabilized for centuries.
The Mendicant orders – including the Franciscans founded by Saint Francis in 1206 – were determined to return to the original teachings of Jesus. They renounced the worldly wealth that had become common among monks and were determined to live on alms. But as often happens when inspirational movements evolve to become the established tradition, the mendicants became the chief prosecutors of heretics under the Inquisition.119
The Normans established settlements in the north of France – the region still called Normandy – and then conquered parts of the Italian peninsula. A descendent of the Normans, Frederick II, established a kingdom early in the 1200’s in Palermo where a multicultural community of Christians, Jews and Muslims led to increased general prosperity.120
This was a relatively peaceful period in Western Europe, which encouraged the expansion of trade and improved prosperity throughout the region, from Italy to Spain to Germany, as well as areas outside the Christian realm, such as the Muslim lands in the south and Slavic tribes in Scandinavia. Southern England and Northern France specialized in textile production. Roads were still poor and taxes were imposed by local lords to pass through their lands, so trade was still far from “free.” Many bridges were built in this period, and rivers were used to transport goods wherever possible, including the Po, the Rhone and the Mosel. Sea trade was the slowest but cheapest means of transportation. The lack of a single currency also inhibited the expansion of trade, which gave rise to a class of merchants that arranged international loans. Taxes on sales transactions often were avoided by the wealthiest classes, which increased the financial distance between the wealthy and poor.121
In the 1200s an appreciation of human nature and reason – thus humanism – was beginning to be practiced in many newly established universities. This was the beginning of people thinking of themselves as having been created in the image of a Savior who God sent to earth and who suffered in the same way as people do. This was reflected in the art of the time in numerous paintings of the Crucifixion.122 Individual learning and growth in skills were beginning to be emphasized during this period, but laughter and joy also were encouraged, partly due to the teachings of Saint Francis. The appreciation and promotion of the individual who had a purpose in the present world – not just the world of salvation – had begun.123
The Magna Carta of 1215 gave notice to kings in England that they could not simply confiscate land, although this eventually would still be done by some, such as Henry VIII, under the pretense of enforcing laws. This meant that to wage war a king would need to levy a tax, and was the beginning of the need for kings to work collaboratively with their subjects.124 In 1265, a new type of Parliament began meeting at Westminster, composed not just of nobles but of knights and burgesses of local boroughs. This legislative body was the foundation of the House of Commons.125
Knowledge based on experiment and discovery – not just belief – began to be developed. Chemistry began to replace alchemy
