Symposium:
Socrates took his seat . . . and had his meal. . . . When dinner was over, they poured a libation to the god, sang a hymn, and — in short — followed the whole ritual. Then they turned their attention to drinking. At that point, Pausanias addressed the group: “Well gentlemen, how can we arrange to drink less tonight? To be honest, I still have a terrible hangover from yesterday, and I could really use a break. I dare say most of you could, too, since you were also part of the celebration. So let’s try not to overdo it.”
The Museum of Wine in Art at Château Mouton-Rothschild near Bordeaux, France, houses a magnificent Greek wine vessel from about 500 BCE that features mythical figures in black on gold, including Pan, god of music, playing his pipe.
Although China was more egalitarian in its tribal stages, throughout the long history of Chinese dynasties there is no record of efforts to provide decision-making power to anyone other than those at the top. Their system was fused to ancestor worship – honoring the past and those who ruled with the authority of ancient tradition. However, challengers occasionally did overcome those in authority and establish their own dynasties, mainly through war, but tribal groups generally were absorbed into the dominant dynasty. For most of its history, Chinese law was mainly a list of punishments for prescribed infractions.51
Toward the end of the Zhou dynasty, there was a move toward greater democratization during the Warring States period (481-221 BCE), in which Chinese historians tell us that over one million people were killed. With the elimination of many of the elite, military and civic promotions needed to be based more on merit than lineage.52
Confucius, who died in 479 BCE, was a scholar who had only a handful of followers at his death. But his reputation based on the sayings attributed to him grew over the centuries and affected the Chinese view of duty and order: “I transmit but do not innovate. I am truthful in what I say and devoted to antiquity.” His teachings emphasized the importance of sons obeying fathers and wives obeying husbands.53 Central to his ideas is that peace of mind comes from accepting traditions and one’s situation in life.
The absolutism of Chinese emperors left no room for the development of democratic incentives. In an effort to suppress the idea of education for the masses – particularly traditional Confucian teachings – Qin Xi-huang in 213 BCE ordered the burning of all books and the execution of 460 scholars who refused to give them up. Despite continual rebellion under the next dynasty – the Han – the nobles who rebelled never were successful in overcoming absolute central power or in sharing government decisions as eventually happened in Western democracies.
The controlling Chinese aristocrats slowly became wealthier over the next four hundred years. Money lending increased these disparities by creating debt for the poor. Eventually the nobility avoided paying taxes or participating in the state to the extent that it collapsed. We will see the same patterns among the elite in Europe. It wasn’t until the eleventh century that centralized power included an administrative system that allowed promotion within the government based on ability rather than patrimony.54
The claim to legitimacy of Chinese rulers throughout history was based on the “Mandate of Heaven,” similar to the Divine Right of Kings that was eventually overthrown in Europe.55 The treachery between kin was probably more extreme than Shakespeare could have imagined, and would have provided grist for many great plays if only the Elizabethans had known of the excesses of these ancient dynasies.56
In the Western hemisphere, Peru’s first inhabitants arrived as early as 10,000 BCE, and sophisticated societies arose there around 3,000 BCE. The Peruvians raised and wore cotton long before Europeans even knew of it.57 In Mexico, the Olmec civilization flourished nearly as far back as that of the Chinese, as evidenced by the calendars they created. Starting in about 1800 BCE they were able to live in cities due to their independent discovery of farming; they developed writing and mathematics, and practiced human sacrifice. The Mayan civilization began about 1000 BCE and expanded to cover much of what is now Mexico and Guatemala, nearly covering the Yucatan Peninsula with cities.58
Wine production in China is believed to go back 5,000 years. From about 1,700 to 900 BCE the guang was used for ceremonial purposes. The guang was a bronze or iron pouring container with a rounded base. Its top and pouring spout were in the shape of an animal. It was used to pour rice wine at banquets and was enclosed in the graves of individuals of high status. Christie’s Auction Catalogue, September 16, 2010
The Mayan civilization disappeared in about 900 CE, probably as a result of overuse of the environment, drought and perpetual conflict with neighbors.59 As one drives through the Yucatan today it is apparent that only a fraction of the settlements that once covered that peninsula is excavated, and that there are countless more cities buried under vine forests yet to be uncovered.
In 1927, archeologists discovered a spear point between two bison ribs near Folsom, New Mexico pointing to the possibility that Pleistocene man had lived in the Americas over 12,000 years ago. A number of human tools – such as axes and spear heads – also were found not long afterwards in nearby Clovis that clearly established the existence of an early settlement of at least the same age.60
Rome began its slow ascent – well before the civilization of the Greeks had peaked – as a village of huts in the eighth century BCE, and eventually ruled an empire that united most of what is now Europe. Many areas that succumbed to Rome’s rule previously had been dominated by local tribal states, while those areas that Rome failed to conquer remained tribal. In northern Britain the Picts fended off Roman domination via fierce warfare.
According to legend, the Etruscans who ruled Rome were ousted by a popular rebellion in 509 BCE.61 The Roman Senate – still before written records – elected two Praetors, who had to agree on any decrees, as joint heads of state for terms of one year. The Senate had 300 members appointed for life, and they themselves voted on their replacements, which created a growing aristocracy and caused the majority of Roman people to withdraw from civic life. The army was composed primarily of the common people (the plebs), which led to the election of Tribunes to represent them, but the Tribunes also became powerful which again created an imbalance of power.62
Rome began the practice of allowing defeated towns to become a part of Roman life and customs – often as citizens or allies – so that its influence began to quickly expand. Citizenship was a privilege that could be earned by individuals from all walks of life, freed slaves included.63 Rome also severely persecuted those who opposed it – including Jews and Christians.
Via a network of excellent roads and settlements populated by their citizens, Rome effectively established a partnership with those in its area of influence by rewarding those who supported it with increased security and a vast trading network. This provided a greater range of goods than would be otherwise possible and was an effective means of creating a loyal following among those willing to cooperate with Roman rule.64 The first known securities market was organized in Rome due to the great wealth that was brought in by its vast trading network. It had the prerequisites for an equity market, including transferable capital, available credit, and people willing to take risk.65
For most of the next century there was a contest for power between the aristocrats and groups representing the bulk of the population. Caesar was immensely popular after he conquered Gaul (now France). He then led his troops to war against the Senate and Pompey, who was then Consul of Rome, which he won in 48 BCE, establishing himself as dictator for life, but soon
