TREATY OFPeace treaty signed on 7 Oct. 1748 at the free imperial city of Aix‐la‐Chapelle (German, Aachen), ending the War of the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. It largely restored wartime conquests to their pre‐war rulers. It also renewed the trading contract (Spanish asiento) granted to Great Britain by Spain in 1713, and reconfirmed recognition of the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION (see UTRECHT, PEACE OF). Britain subsequently surrendered the asiento in return for other concessions (treaty of Madrid, 24 Sept. 1750). See also ROBINSON, THOMAS.ALABAMA AFFAIRA dispute between Great Britain and the USA. In 1862, during the AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, the British government failed to impound a vessel built at Birkenhead (NW England) for use as a cruiser by the breakaway American Confederacy. As the Alabama, it inflicted considerable damage on US Federal shipping. The USA demanded compensation and, after protracted negotiations, Britain agreed in 1872 to pay $15.5 million for damages caused by the Alabama and ten other British‐built ships.ALBANY, 2ND DUKE OFsee STEWART, MURDOCHALBANY, 3RD DUKE OFsee STEWART, ALEXANDERALBANY, 4TH DUKE ofsee STEWART, JOHNALBANY, ROBERT DUKE OFsee STEWART, ROBERTALBERT OF SAXE‐COBURG(b. 26 Aug. 1819 at Schloss Rosenau, Saxe‐Coburg‐Saalfeld, Germany; d. 14 Dec. 1861 at Windsor, Berkshire, England, aged 42). In 1840 Albert, a younger son of Duke Ernst I of Saxe‐Coburg‐Gotha, married his first cousin VICTORIA, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. Intensely serious and obviously foreign, he was never widely popular, but his intelligence gradually won the respect of senior politicians. Under his influence, Victoria became an impartial (though still active) constitutional monarch, and respectable domesticity characterized the royal family. Eager to advance art, science and technology, Albert promoted the GREAT EXHIBITION (1851). He was given the title of ‘prince consort’ in 1857. He died of typhoid. See also KINGSHIP AND MONARCHY, ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN FROM 1680S.ALCHEMYA mixture of pseudo‐scientific and philosophical thought which sought the ‘philosopher’s stone’, a substance that would turn base metals (e.g., lead, copper) into gold or silver. Alchemy flourished in England during the 14th–17th centuries and is recorded in Scotland in the early 16th century. It declined after the SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION of the 17th century. See also DEE, JOHN; NEWTON, ISAAC.ALCUIN(b. c.740 in Northumbria; d. 19 May 804 at Tours, Francia, aged about 64). Master of the cathedral school at York, Northumbria (NE England), Alcuin was invited by Charlemagne, king of the Franks, to advise on educational and Church matters (781). He lived in Francia from 786 (returned to Northumbria 790–3), and was abbot of St Martin at Tours from 796. He revised the Frankish liturgy, wrote books on many subjects, participated in theological disputes, and corresponded with English kings and clergy (over 300 letters survive). See also EDUCATION AND LEARNING, ENGLAND BEFORE 1066.ALEHOUSES, TAVERNS, INNS
Alehouses were ordinary houses in which people bought and consumed ale (barley‐based alcohol), which was usually brewed on the premises, sometimes by women. In existence by the 11th century, they were widespread in towns and the countryside in the 14th century, their presence indicated by signs. Poorer people could augment their income by running an alehouse. In England in the late 16th and 17th centuries, as probably elsewhere, alehouses became more numerous in relation to the population. Beer replaced ale, sometimes provided by commercial ‘common brewers’. Authorities viewed alehouses as unruly and subversive places, and attempted to control them through LICENSING and other means. They were called ‘public houses’ (or ‘pubs’) from the 18th century, and from the 1820s onwards were often purpose‐built.
Taverns were rooms or buildings for the sale and consumption of wine. As it was more expensive than ale, taverns attracted a better‐off clientele, and occurred mainly in towns. Well established by the 13th century, by the 16th century they also provided meals. Taverns lost their distinctiveness from the 18th century.
Inns provided lodgings for travellers and usually also stabling for horses. Although of earlier origin, they were familiar in towns from the late 14th century, with most small towns having two or three inns and larger towns many more. Some were substantial businesses with numerous rooms, and innkeepers might be important local figures. Inns were used as meeting places, and in the late 17th–early 19th centuries some were social centres for GENTRY. During the same period, inns on main roads facilitated stage‐coaching. Inns were superseded from the 19th century by hotels, which concentrated on provision of accommodation.
ALEXANDER, WILLIAM
(b. c.1567 in Scotland; d. 12 Sept. 1640 at London, England, aged about 73). As tutor to Prince HENRY, eldest son of King JAMES VI of Scotland, Alexander moved to England with James on the UNION OF CROWNS (1603). He was knighted (1609) and, on Henry's death (1612), transferred to the household of Henry's younger brother Charles.
In 1621 Alexander was granted NOVA SCOTIA, where he attempted, unsuccessfully, to establish a Scottish colony. From 1626 until his death, he was CHARLES I's SECRETARY OF STATE for Scotland (based in England); he remained a staunch royalist. He was created Viscount (1630) and earl of Stirling (1633).
ALEXANDER I
(b. c.1077; d. 23 April 1124 at Stirling, C Scotland, aged about 48). King of Scots (Scotland) 1107–24.
The fifth son of MALCOLM III and MARGARET (both d. 1093), Alexander succeeded his brother EDGAR (8 Jan. 1107). By 1113, he ceded subordinate rule of S Scotland to his younger brother (see DAVID I). Alexander championed autonomy for the Scottish Church (against claims from archbishops of YORK, England): in 1109 his new bishop of ST ANDREWS, Turgot (d. 1115), probably withheld obedience when consecrated by the archbishop. Alexander also brought Augustinian canons from England to SCONE (c.1115). Succeeded by David I. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS; RELIGIOUS ORDERS.
ALEXANDER II
(b. 24 Aug. 1198 at Haddington, Lothian, SE Scotland; d. 8 July 1249 at Kerrera, Argyll, W Scotland, aged 50). King of Scots (Scotland) 1214–49. Alexander succeeded WILLIAM I (father) aged 16 (4 Dec. 1214) and joined the rebellion against King JOHN of England, seeking to regain northern English counties (see DAVID I). In Aug. 1216, he led an army to Dover, SE England, where he did homage to Prince Louis of France for the counties, agreeing they would remain within England. But Alexander’s assertion of authority over the territories in spring 1217 (following John’s death in Oct. 1216) caused the papal legate in England to place Alexander and leading subjects under an interdict. On 1 Dec. he surrendered CARLISLE in return for absolution, and soon afterwards did homage to HENRY III for other English lands. In 1221 Alexander married Henry's sister Joan.
Alexander exerted authority within Scotland by suppressing rebellions in MORAY, NE Scotland (1228–30), and GALLOWAY, SW Scotland (1235). In 1237 he renounced claims to N England (treaty of YORK). Following another treaty with England (1244), Alexander sought to acquire the WESTERN ISLES. He died while expelling Ewen, son of Duncan, agent of King Haakon IV of Norway. Succeeded by ALEXANDER III. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS; ENGLAND, FRENCH INVASION (1216–17).
ALEXANDER III
(b. 4 Sept. 1241 at Roxburgh, SE Scotland; d. 8 March 1286 near Kinghorn, Fife, E Scotland, aged 44). King of Scots (Scotland) 1249–86. Alexander succeeded ALEXANDER II (father) aged 7 (8 July 1249). In 1251 he married Margaret, daughter of King HENRY III of England. During his minority, until 1260, rival factions (particularly the COMYN family and Alan Durward) periodically replaced each other in royal offices. Henry III also intervened.
Alexander acquired suzerainty of the WESTERN ISLES and Isle of MAN from Norway in 1266 (see LARGS, BATTLE OF; PERTH, TREATY OF). Thereafter his reign was peaceful (including good relations with England), and probably highly successful. Alexander died after falling from his horse. His children were already dead; he was succeeded by his grand‐daughter, MARGARET, ‘THE MAID OF NORWAY'. See also MAC MALCOLM RULERS.
ALFRED
