defence. Attempts to fund this partly through taxation on the colonies were resisted.
In 1764–5 the ministry of George GRENVILLE in Britain promoted legislation affecting the colonies: the Currency Act (1764), which regulated colonial currency; the Sugar Act (1764), which increased import duties; and the Stamp Act (1765), which imposed a duty on publications and documents. Violent resistance led the ministry of the earl of ROCKINGHAM, in March 1767, to pass the Declaratory Act, which affirmed the British Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies, while also repealing the Sugar and Stamp Acts. But in June the new ministry, headed by the earl of Chatham (William PITT the Elder), imposed the ‘Townshend duties’ on the colonies (on tea, glass, paper, etc.). Protests followed, with colonists asserting there must be ‘no taxation without representation’. Most duties were withdrawn (1770).
In 1773 the Tea Act, passed for the ministry of Lord NORTH, allowed tea to be exported directly from India to America. It affected mercantile interests in Massachusetts. The violent response, notably the BOSTON TEA PARTY (Dec.), provoked coercive measures from North’s government (1774; see INTOLERABLE ACTS). Skirmishes between colonists and British troops in 1775 led to war. On 4 July 1776, a congress of 13 colonies at Philadelphia declared independence. See also NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES; AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
The attempt by Great Britain to assert authority over THIRTEEN COLONIES in N America, 1775–81, following disputes (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF).
Skirmishes broke out on 19 April 1775 in the northern colony of MASSACHUSETTS (at Lexington and Concord). Colonial militias then besieged British forces at Boston, while another colonial force invaded CANADA (May 1775–May 1776). British troops evicted a threatening force at Creed’s Hill near Boston (17 June, battle of Bunker Hill). Meanwhile the colonies’ Continental Congress had authorized (May) a ‘Continental Army’ (George WASHINGTON appointed commander‐in‐chief, June). From Oct., William HOWE commanded British forces, and Britain imposed an embargo on colonial exports (Dec.). British forces left Boston by sea in March 1776. On 4 July the Congress formally declared independence.
Britain attempted to isolate NEW ENGLAND by capturing New York City (achieved July–Sept. 1776). Its forces (including German mercenaries) then marched S into NEW JERSEY, but were defeated by Washington’s army at Trenton (26 Dec.) and Princeton (3 Jan. 1777).
In July 1777, British forces sailed to Chesapeake Bay. They defeated Washington’s army at Brandywine Creek (11 Sept.) and occupied Philadelphia, PENNSYLVANIA (26 Sept.). From June 1777, a British force also invaded from Canada to divide the colonies (British surrendered at Saratoga, 17 Oct.). In 1778, Henry Clinton replaced Howe (May), and led British forces from Philadelphia back to New York (June). The colonies were strengthened by alliance with France (Feb. 1778).
The British attempted to conquer the southern colonies, starting with GEORGIA (from Oct. 1778; captured Savannah, 29 Dec., Augusta, Jan. 1779). In SOUTH CAROLINA they took Charleston (12 May 1780) and were victorious at Camden (16 Aug.). In NORTH CAROLINA they fought at Guildford Courthouse (15 March 1781). After resting at Wilmington (April), they moved N into VIRGINIA, but were besieged at YORKTOWN, where George CORNWALLIS surrendered (19 Oct.). See also AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, IMPACT ON IRELAND
The war (1775–81) dramatically affected Ireland, partly because of inept reactions by the British and Irish governments. After war began, the British government imposed additional restrictions on Irish food exports (3 Feb. 1776), to sustain supplies to Britain. This plus a trade recession caused resentment, eventually provoking the NON-IMPORTATION MOVEMENT (1778–9). The Irish government's refusal to fund a militia in 1778, after troops were redeployed to coastal areas (following France's alliance with the USA, Feb. 1778), resulted in the formation of the VOLUNTEERS (voluntary militia), who became politically active.
After a British army in N America surrendered at YORKTOWN (1781), PATRIOT members of the Irish Parliament (e.g., Henry GRATTAN; earl of CHARLEMONT) recruited Volunteer support and pressed for greater autonomy for Ireland. The result was the CONSTITUTION OF 1782. See also PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY; BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 2ND EARL OF.
AMERY, LEOPOLD(b. 22 Nov. 1873 at Gorakhpur, North Western Provinces, India; d. 16 Sept. 1955 at London, England, aged 81). As a writer and editor in Great Britain for The Times 1899–1909, concerned with SOUTH AFRICA, Amery admired the imperial policies of Alfred MILNER. He became a prominent champion of the BRITISH EMPIRE. A Conservative MP 1911–45, he held government posts from 1917. As colonial secretary 1924–9, and also dominions secretary 1925–9, he supported ‘imperial preference’ (see TARIFF REFORM) and advocated the idea of a ‘co‐operative Commonwealth’. He was secretary of state for INDIA and BURMA 1940–5. See also DOMINION; COMMONWEALTH.AMICABLE GRANTIn England, a TAX instigated in 1525 by Thomas WOLSEY for King HENRY VIII, to fund an invasion of France. It was imposed by ROYAL PREROGATIVE, rather than granted by Parliament, and was to be levied on clergy and laity. Following soon after other heavy taxation, the collection (from April) generated popular resistance and was abandoned (by 13 May).AMIENS, PEACE OFA truce between Great Britain and France concluded at Amiens, France, on 27 March 1802 (negotiated for the ministry of Henry ADDINGTON). It halted hostilities during the NAPOLEONIC WARS by fudging controversial strategic issues. Terms included the abandonment by the British Crown of its 14th‐century claim to the French Crown (see FRANCE, CLAIMS BY RULERS OF ENGLAND). French intervention in Italy and Switzerland, coupled with Britain’s refusal to evacuate MALTA, sparked renewed conflict in May 1803.AMRITSAR MASSACREA notorious incident in the city of Amritsar (NW India) on 13 April 1919 (also known as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre), when a British commander, Brigadier‐General Sir Reginald Dyer, ordered troops (mostly Indians) to fire on a large crowd of protestors in a walled recreation ground. It happened soon after wartime emergency powers in India had been extended (so‐called Rowlatt Act), and in reprisal for recent violent protests in Amritsar. Possibly 500–600 people were killed and 1500 were wounded. The event discredited British rule in INDIA.ANARCHISMA political creed based on the belief that government is evil and can be abolished. Anarchists reject restraints on spontaneous action and generally favour violent revolution. Developed in 19th‐century Europe, the doctrine spread from foreign exiles to a few British extremists.ANARCHYTerm used to describe conditions in NORMANDY and England (especially the latter) during struggles to oust STEPHEN as ruler (in Normandy 1138–44, in England 1139–54). Based on contemporary accounts, the term suggests a total breakdown of authority. Modern study has shown that in England, each side exercised some authority over extensive areas (including issue of CURRENCY), and that disorder was often circumscribed (e.g., by local pacts between opponents). See also MATILDA; DAVID I.ANCIENT CONSTITUTIONA concept formulated in England in the early 17th century, particularly by Edward COKE (d. 1634), which claimed that royal power had been regulated by COMMON LAW since at least the time of King ÆTHELBERT of Kent (d. 616). Englishmen therefore possessed inherited liberties. The concept influenced opponents of JAMES VI/I and CHARLES I, who by contrast claimed unfettered prerogative rights of divine origin (see DIVINE RIGHT MONARCHY).ANCIENT ORDER OF HIBERNIANSA Catholic men's charitable society (with women's branch), which was refounded in the USA in 1838. After Church condemnation (for secrecy) was lifted in 1904, the small Irish branch was reorganized by Joseph DEVLIN, who presided over its controlling ‘Board of Erin' 1905–34. The Order expanded rapidly, mainly in N Ireland, to 60,000 members in 1909, 120,000 in 1915. They provided a ‘power base' for Devlin and the IRISH PARLIAMENTARY PARTY, and countered the Protestant ORANGE ORDER. Membership fell rapidly from c.1970.ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT(b. 9 June 1836 at London, England; d. 17 Dec. 1917 at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, England, aged 81). Elizabeth Garrett joined the LANGHAM PLACE CIRCLE in the mid 1850s. Inspired by Elizabeth Blackwell, an English woman with a US medical degree, she qualified as an apothecary (1865), obtained a medical degree from Paris University
