Wantage, Wessex; d. 26 Oct. 899 in Wessex, aged about 50). The fourth son of King ÆTHELWULF to rule WESSEX (S England), Alfred succeeded his brother Æthelred as king in April 871. VIKINGS were attempting to overrun Wessex (one of only three remaining Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms). In 878 much of Wessex capitulated; Alfred fled into hiding at Athelney (Somerset). Soon afterwards, he defeated a Viking army at EDINGTON (Wiltshire) and made terms with their leader, Guthrum (treaty of Wedmore). He constructed BURHS (fortresses) around Wessex to increase its security. By 883, Alfred was overking of (western) MERCIA, and in 886 he captured LONDON and the Thames Valley. He successfully countered further Viking attacks (892–6).
Alfred recruited scholars from Francia, Mercia and Wales to help raise standards of LITERACY and Christian knowledge among the Wessex clergy and nobles (see ASSER). He himself translated several books from Latin into Old English, and commissioned the ANGLO‐SAXON CHRONICLE . He adopted the title ‘king of the Anglo‐Saxons'. The legend of Alfred, at Athelney, allowing cakes to burn while he pondered his future dates from the 10th century. See also KINGSHIP, ANGLO‐SAXON; ANGLO‐SAXONS.
ALIEN ACTLegislation passed by the English Parliament in Feb. 1705 in response to anti‐English Acts of the Scottish Parliament, especially the Act of SECURITY. It required Scotland to begin negotiations for union by 25 Dec. 1705 or accept the HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION. If ignored, punitive measures would follow (including the treatment of Scots coming to England as aliens). It stirred anti‐English feeling in Scotland (see WORCESTER AFFAIR) but succeeded in its purpose. See also UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.ALIEN PRIORIES, ENGLAND AND WALES
Religious houses, generally small (some very small, with two or three monks), which were founded mainly in the late 11th and 12th centuries following the NORMAN CONQUEST. Perhaps totalling about 100, they were controlled and often staffed from overseas monasteries, many in NORMANDY.
During conflict with France, the king seized the priories’ estates to obtain their revenues (1295–1303, 1337–60, 1369–99). Several larger houses obtained independence (so‐called ‘denization’), but many of the smaller ones were confiscated and suppressed by 1414. Their estates were used to endow new institutions such as colleges in OXFORD and CAMBRIDGE. See also MONASTICISM, MEDIEVAL ENGLAND/WALES; EDWARD I; HUNDRED YEARS WAR.
ALLECTUS(d. 296 in S Britain). Of unknown origin, Allectus was probably the chief finance minister of the usurper CARAUSIUS, whom he assassinated in 293, thereby replacing him as ruler of ROMAN BRITAIN. Allectus held power for three years (293–6), until he was defeated and killed by Asclepiodotus, praetorian prefect of Emperor Constantius I, at an unknown site in S Britain (perhaps in modern Hampshire).ALLENBY, EDMUND(b. 23 April 1861 at Brackenhurst Hall, Nottinghamshire, England; d. 14 May 1936 at London, England, aged 75). A soldier from 1881, Allenby held commands in the (Second) BOER WAR (1899–1902) and WORLD WAR I (from 1914). As commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from June 1917, he led campaigns against the Ottoman Turks in PALESTINE. The Third Battle of Gaza (Oct.–Dec.) resulted in the capture of Jerusalem, which Allenby entered dramatically on 11 Dec. He commanded a final offensive northwards in Sept.–Oct. 1918, which left him in charge of an extensive area. Allenby served as special high commissioner to EGYPT (1919–25), when he oversaw its recognition as a sovereign state. He was created Viscount Allenby in 1919.ALLIANCE PARTY
A political party in NORTHERN IRELAND, founded on 21 April 1970. Originating in the CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, it sought to be non‐sectarian, centrist and liberal. It drew support mainly from urban middle‐class Unionists (initially former supporters of Terence O'NEILL) and nationalists (many formerly supporters of the Northern Ireland Labour Party).
Alliance joined the power‐sharing Executive of 1974. It supported the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998), and was usually the fifth largest party in the subsequent ASSEMBLY. From 2010, it participated in the EXECUTIVE, but became critical of the power‐sharing system, claiming that ‘horse trading’ between the major sectarian parties deepened sectarian divisions. It left the Executive for opposition in 2016.
AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS(fl. in mid 5th century in Britain). A British military leader, from a Roman background. According to GILDAS, he roused defeated Britons (in W or SW Britain) to challenge rebellious ‘Saxons' (possibly in 440s). The Britons were successful, though a long period of indecisive conflict followed, lasting until the battle of MOUNT BADON. See POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; VORTIGERN.AMERICAN CIVIL WAR AND GREAT BRITAIN
British opinion was divided over the secession of the pro‐slavery southern states of the USA in 1861. Many British aristocrats favoured the southern plantation owners, and some traders anticipated free markets in the newly formed Confederate States of America. Radicals such as John BRIGHT, however, passionately supported the Union. The TRENT INCIDENT (Nov.–Dec. 1861) and the ALABAMA AFFAIR (from 1862) created ill feeling between Britain and the USA, but Lord PALMERSTON, the British prime minister, withheld recognition from the Confederacy and preserved neutrality.
Sympathy for the southern states waned after President Abraham Lincoln’s ‘Emancipation Proclamation’ (1 Jan. 1863), which freed slaves in rebellious areas. British ships did not break the Union’s blockade, despite the impact of the COTTON FAMINE. The anti‐slavery campaign reinvigorated British Radicals, and working‐class support for a moral cause impressed the leading Liberal W.E. GLADSTONE. Thus the American Civil War indirectly helped to revive the British movement for PARLIAMENTARY REFORM. The Confederate States surrendered in April 1865. See also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, BRITISH RELATIONS WITH.
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
In 1776, THIRTEEN COLONIES in the Americas declared independence from Great Britain as the United States of America. Their action resulted from disputes over taxation for defence costs, and the outbreak of war (see AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF). It was the first secession from the BRITISH EMPIRE.
Colonies co‐operated against Britain from Oct. 1765, when nine held the ‘Stamp Act Congress’ in New York to denounce Britain’s Stamp Act. The INTOLERABLE ACTS of 1774 provoked the First Continental Congress, at Philadelphia (Sept. 1774–Aug. 1776), representing 12 colonies (GEORGIA was unrepresented). It petitioned GEORGE III for redress, organized resistance, and rejected union.
After war broke out in April 1775, colonial royal governors fled and colonial congresses seized power. During the ensuing AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775–81), Congress provided co‐ordination. It authorized a ‘Continental Army’ (May 1775) and again petitioned King George (July). Radical opponents of Britain, notably Thomas PAINE, urged independence. In May 1776, Congress advised colonies to form independent governments as ‘states’. Congress voted for independence (2 July) and issued a Declaration of Independence (4 July). Eleven states also adopted new constitutions (1776–80; CONNECTICUT and RHODE ISLAND were exceptions). A Second Continental Congress, including Georgia, met from Sept. 1776. In Nov. 1777, it approved Articles of Confederation (approved by States by Feb. 1781).
On 2 March 1781 the States, still individually sovereign, inaugurated the Confederation. As it lacked a central government, the Congress of the Confederation co‐ordinated policy. Following the British surrender at YORKTOWN (19 Oct.), Congress obtained recognition of independence from Britain (in treaty of Paris, 1783). But the Confederation was considered ineffective. In 1787 a Federal Convention, convened to revise the Articles, produced a constitution. It prescribed a federal State with an elected president, government, army and navy, and bicameral legislature (implemented 2 July 1788). George WASHINGTON became president in 1789.
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, ORIGINS OF
When the SEVEN YEARS WAR ended in 1763, Great Britain became the dominant imperial power in N America. But its acquisition of ‘New France’, including land along the
