13 6 Measuring Amplifiers 6.1 Amplifiers as a Linear Devices 6.2 Gain Compression Measurements 6.3 Measuring High‐Gain Amplifiers 6.4 Measuring High‐Power Amplifiers 6.5 Making Pulsed‐RF Measurements 6.6 Distortion Measurements 6.7 Measuring Doherty Amplifiers 6.8 X‐Parameters, Load‐Pull Measurements, Active Loads, and Hot S‐Parameters 6.9 Conclusions on Amplifier Measurements References
14 7 Mixer and Frequency Converter Measurements 7.1 Mixer Characteristics 7.2 Mixers vs. Frequency Converters 7.3 Mixers as a 12‐Port Device 7.4 Mixer Measurements: Frequency Response 7.5 Calibration for Mixer Measurements 7.6 Mixers Measurements vs. Drive Power 7.7 TOI and Mixers 7.8 Noise Figure in Mixers and Converters 7.9 Special Cases 7.10 I/Q Converters and Modulators 7.11 Conclusions on Mixer Measurements References
15 8 Spectrum Analysis: Distortion and Modulation Measurements 8.1 Spectrum Analysis in Vector Network Analyzers 8.2 Distortion Measurement of Complex Modulated Signals 8.3 Measurements of Spurious Signals with VNA Spectrum Analyzer 8.4 Measurements of Pulsed Signals and Time‐Gated Spectrum Analysis 8.5 Summary Reference
16 9 Measuring Noise Figure and Noise Power 9.1 Noise‐Figure Measurements for Amplifiers 9.2 Active Antenna Noise‐Figure Measurements (G/T) 9.3 Noise Figure in Mixers and Converters 9.4 Other Noise‐Related Measurements 9.5 Uncertainty, Verification, and Improvement of Noise‐Figure Measurements 9.6 Summary: Noise and Noise‐Figure Measurements References
17 10 VNA Balanced Measurements 10.1 Differential and Balanced S‐Parameters 10.2 3‐Port Balanced Devices 10.3 Measurement Examples for Mixed‐Mode Devices 10.4 True‐Mode VNA for Non‐linear Testing 10.5 Differential Testing Using Baluns, Hybrids, and Transformers 10.6 Distortion Measurements of Differential Devices 10.7 Noise Figure Measurements on Differential Devices 10.8 Conclusions on Differential Device Measurement References
18 11 Advanced Measurement Techniques 11.1 Creating Your Own Cal‐Kits 11.2 Fixturing and De‐embedding 11.3 Determining S‐Parameters for Fixtures 11.4 Automatic Port Extensions (APE) 11.5 AFR: Fixture Removal Using Time Domain 11.6 Embedding Port‐Matching Elements 11.7 Impedance Transformations 11.8 De‐embedding High‐Loss Devices 11.9 Understanding System Stability 11.10 Some Final Comments on Advanced Techniques and Measurements References
19 Appendix APhysical Constants
20 Appendix BCommon RF and Microwave Connectors
21 Appendix CCommon Waveguides
22 Appendix DSome Definitions for Calibration Kit Opens and Shorts
23 Appendix EFrequency, Wavelength, and Period
24
