in IF BW, trace averaging, and ...Figure 5.2 Measurement of an airline with normal calibration and with additi...Figure 5.3 Illustration of IF delay for a long cable.Figure 5.4 Comparing stepped with swept mode on a 3 m cable insertion loss m...Figure 5.5 Calibrating in a stepped mode and measuring in a swept mode.Figure 5.6 Attenuation measurement of a 1 m cable.Figure 5.7 Cable measurement with poor connecters, frequency domain (upper),...Figure 5.8 S 11 and S 22 after gating, indicating the vector error of the each...Figure 5.9 Port extension is applied to each port to determine the location ...Figure 5.10 Port matching adds the negative of the reactive element for cabl...Figure 5.11 Comparing the cable S 21 with compensation and with good connecto...Figure 5.12 A cable with input reflections showing S 11 (right) and S 21 (left...Figure 5.13 Compensating S 21 for the effect of bad input and output connecto...Figure 5.14 Using a power meter as a receiver at the end of a long cable, co...Figure 5.15 Measurement at the end of a long test port cable comparing full ...Figure 5.16 Example of a recorrection system for removing test cable drift....Figure 5.17 Light traces: drift in S 21 and S 11 due to a long cable; dark tra...Figure 5.18 Residual directivity and insertion loss as a function of loss be...Figure 5.19 Dark trace: the transmission of a cable; light trace: square roo...Figure 5.20 Lower window: time‐domain response of the shorted cable, with ga...Figure 5.21 Comparing measurements of a short piece of formed semi‐rigid cab...Figure 5.22 Configuration for in‐line‐connector test.Figure 5.23 Frequency response (upper), time‐domain response, for inline con...Figure 5.24 Response of the in‐line connector, gated and compensated for los...Figure 5.25 Measuring a cable with a variable‐impedance bridge.Figure 5.26 Return loss and insertion loss of a long cable; upper is normal ...Figure 5.27 SRL measurement at 3201 points; upper trace is before connector ...Figure 5.28 Frequency and time domain of a cable with stepped impedances. Up...Figure 5.29 Cable impedance as a function of delay down the cable. Upper win...Figure 5.30 Examples of changing the phase sampling for a long cable; only t...Figure 5.31 Testing S 21 and S 11 of a filter, using marker tracking to find t...Figure 5.32 Using the marker search function to find a filter bandwidth.Figure 5.33 S 11, S 21, and excess loss of a filter.Figure 5.34 Limit testing when the measurement point does not equal the limi...Figure 5.35 Using trace statistics to report the peak‐to‐peak ripple in the ...Figure 5.36 The flatness and slope of a filter are displayed, along with the...Figure 5.37 Transmission response with three different IF bandwidths and thr...Figure 5.38 Segmented sweeps allow optimized measurements of filter transmis...Figure 5.39 Block diagram of a VNA with configurable test set and reversed p...Figure 5.40 Increased dynamic range and speed using a reversed coupler.Figure 5.41 Group delay on a filter with various number of points and variou...Figure 5.42 Group delay results from applying a fixed‐delay aperture to the ...Figure 5.43 Saw filter response frequency (upper), time domain (lower).Figure 5.44 Phase response of a filter before and after setting electrical d...Figure 5.45 Least‐squares and min‐max fit of a phase deviation.Figure 5.46 Measuring couplers: upper plot is the three main terms, lower pl...Figure 5.47 4‐port coupler using a fixed external loan, a 4‐port VNA, and po...Figure 5.48 A 4‐port 90° hybrid and a 4‐port 180° hybrid.Figure 5.49 Response of a 90° 4‐port hybrid.Figure 5.50 Typical form of a Wilkinson power splitter.Figure 5.51 Response of a splitter.Figure 5.52 Isolator behavior in the presence of a non‐ideal load.Figure 5.53 Measurements of an isolator.Figure 5.54 Schematic of a 1‐port resonator with coupling capacitance.Figure 5.55 Return loss plot of a resonator with direct coupling and with ma...Figure 5.56 Smith chart plot of a directly connected resonator and one match...Figure 5.57 Measurement of an antenna return loss.Figure 5.58 Change in apparent tuned frequency due to directivity errors or ...6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Relative gain of an amplifier versus compression level.Figure 6.2 Amplifier pretest: a wide band sweep looks for instability, and c...Figure 6.3 Typical plot showing S‐parameters, gain, solation, input, and out...Figure 6.4 Match‐corrected power measurements of an amplifier.Figure 6.5 Match‐corrected powers with software Rx‐leveling.Figure 6.6 Typical configuration for measuring DC power consumption.Figure 6.7 Measurement output power and DC current, for three different inpu...Figure 6.8 S‐parameters, K‐factor, and max stable gain.Figure 6.9 Resistance is added to the input network to improve the stability...Figure 6.10 Circuit response after matching.Figure 6.11 Stability circles at the center frequency.Figure 6.12 Mu1 and Mu2 for a conditionally stable amplifier.Figure 6.13 Mu1 and Mu2 for an amplifier after port matching to make it unco...Figure 6.14 Available gain of an amplifier computed from the output match (G...Figure 6.15 Transduce gain for an amplifier between two filters (dark trace)...Figure 6.16 The overall gain from embedding the filter response using port m...Figure 6.17 Detecting the onset of compression.Figure 6.18 CW power sweep to find compression.Figure 6.19 Back‐off and X‐Y methods of finding compression.Figure 6.20 Phase vs. drive and AM‐to‐PM.Figure 6.21 Swept frequency 1 dB compression measurements.Figure 6.22 A 3‐D surface of compression versus frequency and input power.Figure 6.23 S21 gain of an amplifier in compression, normal and with match c...Figure 6.24 Swept power PAE (upper); swept frequency PAE (lower).Figure 6.25 PAE versus power and frequency on a 3‐D surface.Figure 6.26 Error‐corrected measurements on a high‐gain amplifier.Figure 6.27 VNA block diagram with port 1 coupler reversed.Figure 6.28 S21 noise on a high gain amplifier with various settings; S11, S...Figure 6.29 Configuration for high power drive using rear panel loops for te...Figure 6.30 High power drive with external couplers.Figure 6.31 Measurement setup for +46 dBm maximum power.Figure 6.32 Configuration for high power test where the load changes with po...Figure 6.33 Timing diagram for wideband pulsed measurements.Figure 6.34 Narrowband pulse measurement spectrum and time measurement.Figure 6.35 Pulsed RF amplifier measurement show a1 power before and after R...Figure 6.36 Pulse measurement shows gain, phase, and output power of an ampl...Figure 6.37 A narrowband mode pulse profile on a narrow pulse.Figure 6.38 Pulse‐to‐pulse measurements.Figure 6.39 Pulse profile showing DC measurements and PAE.Figure 6.40 Spectrum plot of an amplifier's harmonic response.Figure 6.41 Setting up for a harmonic measurement.Figure 6.42 Defining harmonic measurement parameters.Figure 6.43 Harmonic measurements on a VNA.Figure 6.44 Evaluating VNA harmonics: source harmonics (upper); receiver har...Figure 6.45 A harmonic enhancement circuit with its frequency response.Figure 6.46 Doherty amplifier block diagram.Figure 6.47 Driving an amplifier from a dual source VNA.Figure 6.48 Frequency sweep of Doherty amplifier.Figure 6.49 Power sweep of a Doherty amplifier.Figure 6.50 Power and PAE versus phase of the input.Figure 6.51 S21, S22, and T22 terms as a function of input power.Figure 6.52 The vector effect of a2 and a2* on apparent reflection.Figure 6.53 Illustration of a source and load‐pull system.Figure 6.54 Block diagram of a VNA with active load‐pulling.Figure 6.55 Active load‐pull showing output power and effective Hot‐S 22.Figure 6.56 Schematic for an X‐parameter based Load‐pull simulation.Figure 6.57 Comparing X‐parameter simulated load‐pull with real load‐pull va...Figure 6.58 PAE contours versus load impedance.Figure 6.59 Output (b2) spectrum of an amplifier with a single input signal....Figure 6.60 Traditional Hot‐S 22 measure of a total reflection from an open p...Figure 6.61 Traditional Hot‐S 22, showing the output reflection of the amplif...Figure 6.62 Spectrum of traditional Hot‐S 22 with a non‐linear amplifier.Figure 6.63 Swept frequency response, linear and high power, showing normal ...Figure 6.64 Gain versus power for an amplifier, comparing traditional 2‐port...Figure 6.65 S 22 and Hot‐S 22 for a power sweep.Figure 6.66 LogMag of S 22 and Hot‐S 22 in a power sweep.Figure 6.67 X s (2,2) and X t (2,2) versus drive power.
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Input, LO, and output wave forms from a single‐balanced mixer.Figure 7.2 Conduction of a double‐balanced mixer.Figure 7.3 Image reject and IQ mixer topologies: standard topology (upper), ...Figure 7.4 Graphical representation of signals at the input and output of a ...Figure 7.5 Schematic of a normal (a) and image (b) mixers showing incident a...Figure 7.6 Schematic representations of mixers with nonideal responses.Figure 7.7 Actual circuit (a) and equivalent circuit at the RF (b) for a sou...Figure 7.8 Actual circuit (a) and equivalent circuit at the RF (b) for a sou...Figure 7.9 Understand the effect of phase shift of the LO: transmission phas...Figure 7.10 Typical output response of a mixer showing harmonics
