Al‐Cu in Figure 13.13): (a) p...Figure 13.44 Effect of Cu back diffusion on binary Al‐Cu system (Compare wit...Figure 13.45 Effect of Mg back diffusion on binary Al‐Mg system (Compare wit...Figure 13.46 Crack susceptibility shown by transverse‐motion weldability tes...Figure 13.47 Mg‐Gd system: (a) phase diagram; (b) crack susceptibility curve...Figure 13.48 Grain boundary liquid: (a) dihedral angle; (b) distribution of ...Figure 13.49 Extensive bonding delayed, e.g. to (f S)1/2 > 0.98, by very smal...Figure 13.50 Binary Al‐Sn system: (a) phase diagram; (b) T‐(f S)1/2 cur...Figure 13.51 Solidification cracking in steel weld.Figure 13.52 Crack susceptibility curves of binary Al alloy systems: (a) Al‐...Figure 13.53 Solidification cracking susceptibility of aluminum alloys: (a) ...Figure 13.54 Approximate levels of dilution in aluminum welding: (a) 20% in ...Figure 13.55 Schematic sketch of multipass welding. Note that the root pass ...Figure 13.56 Buttering the groove faces of very high carbon steel with a 310...Figure 13.57 Effect of Mn/S ratio and carbon content on solidification crack...Figure 13.58 Solidification cracking in 2014 Al welds: (a) effect of arc osc...Figure 13.59 Schematic sketches showing effect of arc oscillation on crack p...Figure 13.60 Solidification cracking in 5052 Al welds: (a) effect of arc osc...Figure 13.61 Effect of grain refining on solidification cracking of 321 stai...Figure 13.62 Effect of weld bead shape on tension and solidification crackin...Figure 13.63 Effect of weld depth‐to‐width ratio on centerline cracking: (a)...Figure E13.1 Crack susceptibility curve for Al‐Mg alloys shown by Dowd [19]....Figure E13.2a Transverse cross‐section of a butt joint without a gap showing...Figure E13.2b Crack‐susceptibility map for Al‐Si‐Mg alloys [29, 140].Figure E13.3 Effect of filler metals on solidification cracking of 2024 Al [...Figure P13.1 Binary Al‐Si alloys: (a) phase diagram; (b) curves of T vs. (fS...14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Temperature range of ductility dip and location of ductility dip...Figure 14.2 Approximate compositions of some Ni‐base alloys and stainless st...Figure 14.3 Cracking in 310 stainless steel after trans Varestraint testing:...Figure 14.4 Spot Varestraint testing of reheated weld metal of 690: (a) spot...Figure 14.5 Assessing susceptibility of ductility‐dip cracking by Varestrain...Figure 14.6 Preparation of sample for strain‐to‐fracture test: (a) vertical ...Figure 14.7 Schematic diagram of strain‐to‐fracture test procedure used in s...Figure 14.8 Applied strain vs. temperature strain‐to‐fracture test results f...Figure 14.9 Example of PVR test applied to study ductility‐dip cracking in b...Figure 14.10 Procedure for recording grain‐boundary sliding (GBS) in strain‐...Figure 14.11 Types of crack initiation by GBS: (a‐c) SEM images taken from a...Figure 14.12 Grain‐boundary (GB) misorientation and ductility‐dip cracking i...Figure 14.13 Effect of GB tortuosity and precipitates on GB sliding, strain ...Figure 14.14 Grain boundaries in Ni‐base filler metals after strain‐to‐fract...Figure 14.15 Effect of base‐metal grain size on susceptibility of NiCr15Fe‐t...Figure 14.16 Effect of S and P on temperature range in which Ni‐base alloy 6...Figure 14.17 304 stainless steel quenched with liquid Wood's metal during ga...Figure 14.18 Microstructure in the right boxed area in Figure 14.17. Formati...Figure 14.19 Cracking caused by tension induced by quenching during welding:...Figure E14.1 Ductility‐dip temperature ranges of three different filler meta...Figure E14.2 Cracking in a 316 austenitic stainless steel quenched during we...Figure P14.2 Spot‐Varestraint‐test results of deposits of two filler metals ...
15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Melting and solidification of: (a) pure metal at melting point T Figure 15.2 Formation of partially melted zone PMZ (S): (a) phase diagram; (...Figure 15.3 Partially melted zone (PMZ) in 6061 Al welded with filler 4145 A...Figure 15.4 Partially melted zone (PMZ) in 2219 Al welded with filler metal ...Figure 15.5 Liquation Mechanism I for an alloy with a solute content beyond ...Figure 15.6 Liquation of 2219 Al by Mechanism I: (a) phase diagram; (b) SEM ...Figure 15.7 Transverse cross‐section of a bead‐on‐plate weld of 2219 Al: (a)...Figure 15.8 Liquation Mechanism II for an alloy with a solute content below ...Figure 15.9 Liquation of homogenized Al‐4.5Cu by Mechanism II: (a) phase dia...Figure 15.10 Liquation Mechanism III for an alloy with a solute content belo...Figure 15.11 Liquation of as‐cast Al‐4.5Cu by Mechanism III: (a) phase diagr...Figure 15.12 Constitutional liquation in IN 718 caused by Laves phase reacti...Figure 15.13 Microstructural variations at a point in the PMZ during welding...Figure 15.14 “Ghost” grain boundaries near fusion boundary of Ni‐base alloy ...Figure 15.15 Directional solidification of GB liquid – upward and inward tow...Figure 15.16 Directional solidification of GB liquid in PMZ upward and towar...Figure 15.17 Mode of directional solidification of grain‐boundary liquid: (a...Figure 15.18 Solute segregation across grain boundary in PMZ.Figure 15.19 Cu segregation across grain boundary in PMZ of 2219 Al: (a) SEM...Figure 15.20 Weakening of 2219 Al weld PMZ by solute segregation: (a) tensil...Figure 15.21 Hydrogen‐induced cracking in the PMZ of HY‐80 steel.Figure 15.22 Effect of heat input on width of PMZ.Figure 15.23 Effect of welding current on PMZ width of 6061 Al: (a) 100 A; (...Figure 15.24 Effect of transverse arc oscillation on width of PMZ: (a) no os...Figure 15.25 Effect of arc oscillation on PMZ liquation in 2014 Al (~Al‐4Cu)...
16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Intergranular cracking in a bead‐on‐plate, partial‐penetration w...Figure 16.2 Longitudinal cross‐section of partially melted zone (PMZ) of 221...Figure 16.3 Liquation cracking in PMZ of 7075 Al weld made with filler metal...Figure 16.4 Liquation cracking in PMZ at tip of partial‐penetrating weld mad...Figure 16.5 Mg‐alloy specimens for circular‐patch welding test of liquation ...Figure 16.6 Mechanism of liquation cracking in partially melted zone (PMZ)....Figure 16.7 Criterion for predicting susceptibility to liquation cracking: (...Figure 16.8 Solidifying weld metal vs. solidifying PMZ: (a) top view of weld...Figure 16.9 Crack susceptibility criterion verified by circular‐patch weldin...Figure 16.10 Effect of backfilling on liquation cracking: (a) open crack in ...Figure 16.11 T‐f S curves for 6061 Al (~ Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si) welded with 5356...Figure 16.12 T‐f S curves for 6061 Al (~ Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si) welded with 4043...Figure 16.13 Crack susceptibility criterion verified by circular‐patch weldi...Figure 16.14 Effect of heat input on liquation cracking in Varestraint testi...Figure 16.15 Effect of heat input on liquation cracking in PMZ of 2014 Al (~...Figure 16.16 Effect of grain size on concentration of liquation‐causing mate...Figure 16.17 Effect of grain size on liquation cracking in Varestraint testi...Figure 16.18 Effect of grain size and boron content on liquation cracking in...Figure 16.19 Liquation cracking in two Al–4.5% Cu alloys: (a) small grains; ...Figure 16.20 Liquation cracking in as‐cast AZ91 Mg welded with AZ31 Mg as fi...Figure 16.21 Binary Mg‐Al phase diagram.Figure 16.22 Liquation cracking in resistance spot weld of 5754 Al (~Al‐3.2M...Figure 16.23 Liquation in friction stir spot weld of 3.1 mm as‐cast AZ91 Mg ...Figure 16.24 Liquation cracking in friction stir spot weld of as‐cast AZ91 M...Figure 16.25 FSSW of 6061 Al (~Al‐1Mg‐0.6Si), 2219 Al (~Al‐6.3Cu) and AZ91 M...Figure 16.26 T‐f S curves for 6061 Al, 2219 Al and AZ91 Mg alloys.Figure 16.27 FSW of Mg‐Zn alloys: (a) and (b) Mg‐6Zn showing sign of liquati...Figure 16.28 Curves of fraction solid fS vs. temperature T showing fraction ...Figure 16.29 Direct evidence of liquation in Al‐to‐Mg lap FSW: (a) liquid dr...Figure 16.30 Friction stir welding of metal A to metal B: (a) butt; (b) conv...Figure 16.31 Effect of materials positions on peak temperatures (and hence h...Figure 16.32 Transverse cross‐sections of butt welds: (a) weld B‐7; (b) weld...Figure 16.33 Effect of materials positions on peak temperatures (and hence h...Figure 16.34 Single‐pass lap FSW of metal A to metal B: (a) conventional; (b...Figure 16.35 Transverse cross‐sections of lap welds: (a) conventional lap we...Figure 16.36 Binary Al‐Cu phase diagram.Figure 16.37 Tensile test curves of conventional lap weld CL‐1 (1.5 ipm or 3...Figure 16.38 Transverse cross‐sections of lap welds: (a)—(c) conventional la...Figure E16.2Figure E16.2 T‐f S curves of 2024 Al and its butt welds with vari...Figure P16.2 T‐f S curves of 2024 Al and its welds made with 4043 Al and 1100...
17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Recrystallization and grain growth of work‐hardened brass: (a) s...Figure 17.2 Effect of annealing temperature and time on strength and grain s...Figure 17.3 Three steps in artificial aging of Al‐Cu alloys (e.g. Al‐4Cu): s...Figure 17.4 TEM image and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern ...Figure 17.5 TEM images of Al‐4.11Cu solution heat treated and then artificia...Figure 17.6 Artificial aging
