laser beam, no key...Figure 3.30 Oscillation of a 8.5‐mm‐diameter pool surface in conduction‐mode...Figure 3.31 New theory explaining effect of sulfur shown in Fig. 3.29: (a) (...Figure 3.32 Transverse cross‐sections of 304 stainless steel welds: (a) 42 p...Figure 3.33 RSW and MA‐RSW: (a) RSW; (b) MA‐RSW; (c) magnetic field and Lore...Figure 3.34 Calculated results of RSW with induced magnetic field: (a) veloc...Figure 3.35 Resistance spot welds of DP980 steel: (a) (b) (c) thicknesses an...Figure E3.1 Distributions of surface tension on weld pool surfaces and flow ...Figure E3.2 Effect of SO2(g) in Ar shielding gas on weld shape.Figure P3.6 Paraffin sandwiched between two vertical pieces of glass. Top su...4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Asymmetric fusion zone in GTAW of between 304L (0.003 wt% S) and ...Figure 4.2 Comparison of (a) macrograph of weld stop region reported by Lien...Figure 4.3 Calculated distributions at top of weld pool surface in GTAW of 1...Figure 4.4 Calculated distributions of Fe in GTAW of 1018 steel to 304 stain...Figure 4.5 Vapor pressure of several metals as a function of temperature....Figure 4.6 Composition profile along axis of 5356 Al (~Al‐5Mg) filler wire a...Figure 4.7 Magnesium loss in a laser weld of an Al‐Mg alloy.Figure 4.8 Composition change in laser keyhole welding of 304 stainless stee...Figure 4.9 In‐flight (already detached droplet) explosion of 5183 Al (~Al‐4....Figure 4.10 More spatter in GMAW caused by Al filler wires with more (Zn+Mg)...Figure 4.11 7075 Al wire after conventional GMAW: (a) 119 mm/s (280 ipm) wir...Figure 4.12 5356 Al wire tip after conventional GMAW: (a) overview; (b) (c) ...Figure 4.13 Returning Marangoni flow carrying nucleated bubbles axially down...Figure 4.14 Boiling point calculated as a function of Mg content in binary A...Figure 4.15 Al‐Zn phase diagram.Figure 4.16 Thickness of diffusion layer between Al (left) and Zn (right): (...Figure 4.17 Growth of diffusion layer thickness with time.Figure 4.18 Al‐Mg phase diagram.Figure 4.19 Thickness of diffusion layer between Al (left) and Zn (right): (...Figure 4.20 Composition profiles across interface between Rene‐N4 and Rene‐N...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Oxygen and nitrogen levels in several arc welding processes.Figure 5.2 Free energy of formation of nitrides relevant to welding. The low...Figure 5.3 Free energy of formation of oxides relevant to welding. The lower...Figure 5.4 Preparation of specimens for tensile test (all weld metal) and Ch...Figure 5.5 All‐weld‐metal specimen for tensile testing: (a) location of spec...Figure 5.6 Specimen for Charpy impact testing: (a) location of V‐notch insid...Figure 5.7 Charpy specimens of steel welds after testing: (a) brittle fractu...Figure 5.8 Solubility of hydrogen in metals as a function of temperature sho...Figure 5.9 All‐weld‐metal tensile specimen machined from along and inside a ...Figure 5.10 Reducing hydrogen porosity in laser‐beam welds of 1420 Al‐Li all...Figure 5.11 Reducing hydrogen porosity by stirring weld pool: (a) magnetic f...Figure 5.12 Hydrogen content in gas–tungsten arc welds of 0.5Cr‐0.5Mo steel ...Figure 5.13 Effect of electrode baking temperature on weld metal diffusible ...Figure 5.14 Effect of shielding gases on weld metal hydrogen content: (a) GM...Figure 5.15 Effect of postweld heating on the weld metal hydrogen content of...Figure 5.16 A36 steel welds made by GMAW with solid‐wire electrode ER70S‐6: ...Figure 5.17 Solubility of N and H in Fe. Note that the big solubility drop o...Figure 5.18 Effect of nitrogen partial pressure in Ar–N2 shielding gas on ni...Figure 5.19 Iron nitride in a ferrite matrix.Figure 5.20 Effect of nitrogen on the room temperature mechanical properties...Figure 5.21 Effect of oxygen equivalence (OE) on ductility of titanium welds...Figure 5.22 Gas–tungsten arc welding of titanium with additional gas shieldi...Figure 5.23 Removal of mill scale from steel workpiece surface before weldin...Figure 5.24 Changes in toughness at low oxygen concentrations in steel weld ...Figure 5.25 Wormhole porosity in weld metal.Figure 5.26 Effect of oxygen content of steel welds on toughness.Figure 5.27 Effect of the oxygen content on the mechanical properties of mil...Figure 5.28 Free energy of formation of sulfides relevant to welding. The lo...Figure 5.29 Effect of flux additions to manganese silicate flux on extent of...Figure 5.30 Weld metal oxygen content in steel as a function of flux basicit...Figure 5.31 Weld metal oxygen content in steel as a function of flux basicit...Figure 5.32 Desulfurization of high‐strength, low‐alloy steel welds as a fun...Figure 5.33 Inclusion initiating fracture in high‐strength, low‐alloy steel....Figure 5.34 Relationship between the toughness at 20 °C and the oxygen conte...Figure 5.35 Charge transfer reactions for DCEP and DCEN polarities in submer...Figure 5.36 Charge transfer reactions for DCEP and DCEN polarities in shield...Figure 5.37 Oxygen contents of the welding wire, melted electrode tips, and ...Figure 5.38 Gain or loss of weld metal silicon due to reactions in weld pool...Figure 5.39 Loss of weld metal manganese due to reactions in weld pool for e...Figure 5.40 Oxygen contents in wire, droplets, and weld metal in submerged a...Figure E5.2 Gas porosity in 304 stainless steel: (a) weld A; (b) weld B.
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Thermally induced stresses: (a) during heating; (b) during coolin...Figure 6.2 Changes in temperature and stresses during welding.Figure 6.3 Typical distributions of residual stresses in butt weld: (a) long...Figure 6.4 Measured and calculated distributions of residual stress in butt ...Figure 6.5 Effect of temperature and time on stress relief of steel welds....Figure 6.6 Distortion in welded structures.Figure 6.7 Angular distortion in butt weld of 12.7 mm plates of 1100 Al (~co...Figure 6.8 Distortion in butt welds of 5083 Al (~Al‐4.5Mg) with thicknesses ...Figure 6.9 Effect of joint design on angular distortion: (a) single–V; (b) d...Figure 6.10 Methods for controlling weld distortion: (a) presetting; (b) pre...Figure 6.11 Presetting steel plates 19 mm thick to reduce angular distortion...Figure 6.12 Fatigue stress cycling (top) and formation of intrusions and ext...Figure 6.13 Extrusions and intrusions in Cu after 5000 cycles of cyclic load...Figure 6.14 Failed axle shaft of automobile: (a) fracture surface; (b) beach...Figure 6.15 SEM images of fracture surface of 6056 Al.Figure 6.16 Effect of alloy and material properties on fatigue of transverse...Figure 6.17 Effect of joint configurations on fatigue of 5083–O Al.Figure 6.18 Effect of reinforcement removal and saltwater environment on fat...Figure 6.19 Fatigue crack originating from weld toe of gas–metal arc weld of...Figure 6.20 Effect of undercutting on fatigue in electron beam welds of carb...Figure 6.21 Effect of stress relieving and shot peening on residual stresses...Figure 6.22 Stress raisers in butt and T‐welds and their corrections.Figure 6.23 Effect of weld reinforcement on fatigue life of transverse butt ...Figure E6.1 Transverse cross–sections of welds: (a) one weld; (b) a similar ...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Directional solidification of an alloy: (a) apparatus; (b) crucib...Figure 7.2 Binary phase diagrams between metal A and solute B near pure A: (...Figure 7.3 Four different cases of solute redistribution during unidirection...Figure 7.4 Mass balance for Case II solute redistribution. Composition prof...Figure 7.5 Concentration of solute (i.e.
