7.30 Working principle of electrochemical double‐layer capacitors. (a...Figure 7.31 Discharge voltage curve of an ideal capacitor.Figure 7.32 Charge storage in pores of different diameters.Figure 7.33 Discharge capacitance (as a function of the specific surface are...Figure 7.34 Specific capacitance as function of the specific surface area. (...Figure 7.35 Synthesis of activated carbons for applications in electrochemic...Figure 7.36 Coconut shell‐derived activated carbon (at different magnificati...Figure 7.37 Basic principle of a redox flow battery.Figure 7.38 Flow‐through and flow‐by electrodes.Figure 7.39 Manufacturing concepts of bipolar plates for redox flow batterie...Figure 7.40 Sigracet® bipolar plates for redox flow batteries. Graphite‐comp...Figure 7.41 Manufacturing routes for carbon felts.Figure 7.42 Optical micrographs of (a, b) Sigracell® carbon felts and SEM im...Figure 7.43 Reticulated vitreous carbon manufacturing.Figure 7.44 Micrographs of RVC foams. Source: Friedrich et al. 2004 [131] an...Figure 7.45 Structure of a PEMFC stack and single cell (exploded view).Figure 7.46 Injection‐molded carbon–polymer composite plate (a) and flexible...Figure 7.47 Manufacturing routes for GDLs and GDEs.Figure 7.48 Reel‐to‐reel processing of carbon fiber‐based gas diffusion laye...Figure 7.49 Manufacturing of gas diffusion layer substrates.Figure 7.50 Micrographs of different GDL backings.Figure 7.51 Pore size distribution of a typical MPL‐coated GDL obtained by m...Figure 7.52 Three‐phase boundary of a PEMFC catalyst layer (anode).23 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Different types of defects [11]. (a) Stone–Wales, (b) single vaca...Figure 8.2 Typical TPD profiles of CNTs.Figure 8.3 Surface functional groups of carbon materials.Figure 8.4 Au(III) species as a function of pH.Figure 8.5 Determine the PZC of CNTs from zeta potential as a function of pH...Figure 8.6 Schematic presentations of interactions between the active sites ...Figure 8.7 Schematic picture for the stabilization of Ag nanoparticles with ...Figure 8.8 Schematic picture for reduction of metal–surfactant complex to pr...Figure 8.9 Schematic drawings of EB DH process catalyzed by UDDs (a). Compar...Figure 8.10 Dependence of EB consumption rate and styrene selectivity on the...Figure 8.11 In situ O1s XPS of o‐CNTs and phosphate modified o‐CNTs (P‐o‐CNT...Figure 8.12 Selective titration reactions of oxygen functionalities on o‐CNT...Figure 8.13 Comparison of the catalytic activity (EB conversion rate) on o‐C...Figure 8.14 Schematic drawings of nanocarbon‐catalyzed EB ODH reactions thro...Figure 8.15 EB ODH rates as a function of reaction temperature (a), oxygen p...Figure 8.16 Reaction pathways and energy barrier for butane ODH reactions on...Figure 8.17 Reaction pathways for the selective oxidation of acroleins to co...Figure 8.18 Comparison of catalytic activity for various carbon catalysts in...Figure 8.19 Hydrochlorination performance of NCNT catalyst: TEM image of NCN...Figure 8.20 Schematic drawings of the synthesis of SiC granule (a): SiC@N‐C ...Figure 8.21 Schematic drawings of selective oxidation of C6H12 in solvent ca...Figure 8.22 Reaction route for reduction of nitrobenzene catalyzed by carbon...
24 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Schematic model of activated carbon.Figure 9.2 Schematic pore diameter distributions of carbonaceous adsorbents....Figure 9.3 Pressure drop of molded activated carbon with different particle ...Figure 9.4 Pore size distribution of different activated carbons. —— Gas‐ph...Figure 9.5 Characterization of different raw materials. Figure 9.6 Shaft furnace.Figure 9.7 Rotary kiln for steam‐activation process. (a) Steam. (b) Gas. (c)...Figure 9.8 Multiple‐hearth furnace. (a) Raw material silo. (b) Inlet. (c) Bu...Figure 9.9 Fluidized‐bed furnace. (a) Raw material silo. (b) Inlet. (c) Comb...Figure 9.10 Flow sheet for production of pelletized activated carbon. (a) Cr...Figure 9.11 Production steps of formed activated carbon. Figure 9.12 Gas‐ and liquid‐phase applications of carbonaceous adsorbents.Figure 9.13 Gas‐phase applications of carbonaceous adsorbents.Figure 9.14 Linear adsorption isotherm for toluene. Figure 9.15 Flow sheet of a solvent recovery unit. (a1) Adsorber 1. (a2) Ads...Figure 9.16 Temperature diagram for the carbon bed of a solvent recovery uni...Figure 9.17 Drinking water treatment with powdered and granular activated ca...
25 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Scanning electron microscopy image of two carbon black aggregate...Figure 10.2 Carbon blacks of different primary particle sizes and specific s...Figure 10.3Figure 10.3 Particle distribution curves for the carbon blacks of...Figure 10.4Figure 10.4 Furnace blacks of different aggregation degrees.Figure 10.5 Phase‐contrast electron micrograph of a carbon black aggregate....Figure 10.6 SEM image of a graphitized carbon black.Figure 10.7 Phase‐contrast electron micrograph of graphitized carbon black....Figure 10.8 Phase‐contrast micrograph of an inversion black.Figure 10.9 Scanning tunneling micrograph of N234.Figure 10.10 Scanning tunneling micrograph of an inversion carbon black.Figure 10.11 Mean particle sizes of different carbon blacks. 11 nm: gas blac...Figure 10.12 Mean particle sizes and typical applications of various carbon ...Figure 10.13 Electron micrograph of the carbon black Printex®55. Printex 55 ...Figure 10.14 Particle size distribution diagram.Figure 10.15 Relative particle frequency vs. the ratio di/d50 for various fu...Figure 10.16 Relative primary particle frequency vs. the ratio di/d50 for ca...Figure 10.17 Transmission electron micrograph of acetylene black.Figure 10.18 TEM images of the furnace blacks N347 (a) and N326 (b) in powde...Figure 10.19 MY value vs. primary particle size.Figure 10.20 Surface oxides on carbon black. The dotted lines indicate that ...Figure 10.21 Furnace black process. (a) Furnace black reactor, (b) heat exch...Figure 10.22 Furnace black reactors. (A) Restrictor ring reactor, (B) ventur...Figure 10.23 Vertical reactor for manufacturing semireinforcing blacks. (a) ...Figure 10.24 Typical energy balance for the manufacture of a reinforcing bla...Figure 10.25 Pelleting machine.Figure 10.26 Furnace black process.Figure 10.27 Degussa gas black process. (a) Oil evaporator, (b) burner, (c) ...Figure 10.28 Lampblack process. (a) Vessel filled with feedstock, (b) conic...Figure 10.29 Thermal black process. (a) Thermal black reactor, (b) quench to...Figure 10.30 Equipment for the oxidative aftertreatment of carbon black in a...Figure 10.31 Adsorbed nitrogen volume Va vs. the statistical layer thickness...Figure 10.32 Aggregate area vs. DBP absorption.Figure 10.33 Void volume of N550 depending on the pressure.Figure 10.34 Application areas of carbon blacks and shares of total consumpt...Figure 10.35 Global capacity and consumption of carbon black.Figure 10.36 Development of carbon black production in different regions.
26 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The history of commercial carbon fibers [].Figure 11.2 The market penetration and price development of carbon fibers.Figure 11.3 Graphitic carbon layers with sp2 hybridization. (A) Graphite: he...Figure 11.4b11.4aFigure 11.4b Stagnation in enhancement of carbon fibre prop...Figure 11.4 Principal calculation of mechanical properties based on a quantu...Figure 11.5 Specific tensile modulus (Young's modulus divided by density) of...Figure 11.6 Schematic overview of different carbon fiber types (http://www.c...Figure 11.7 Coalescence of disklike liquid crystals in pitch.Figure 11.8 Manufacture of polyacrylonitrile fibers [46]. Wet spinning, lowe...Figure 11.9 (a) Melt spinning process. (b) Solvent spinning process. (c) Dry...Figure 11.10 FESEM images of the two different morphologies of PAN fibrils (...Figure 11.11 Schematic model of the fibril structures of PAN fibers and the ...Figure 11.12 Color change of polyacrylonitrile during stabilization reaction...Figure 11.13 (a) Increase of density of PAN during thermal treatment in air ...Figure 11.14 Mass and heat transport influenced by gas–solid body reactions ...Figure 11.15 (a) Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) (principle). (b) Ex...Figure 11.16 The reaction of stabilization is double or triple of the oxyhyd...Figure 11.17 The chemistry of stabilization and carbonization (simplified) [...Figure 11.18 Elemental composition correlated with the reaction time and sta...Figure 11.19 Exemplary temperature profiles from scientific and patent liter...Figure 11.20 Isothermal/non‐isothermal linear and hyperbolic temperature pro...Figure 11.21 Target density of stabilized PAN after isothermal/non‐isotherma...Figure 11.21Figure 11.21 Target density of 1.40 g/cm3 of stabilized PAN corr...Figure 11.22b11.22a Basic design and cross section of the centrotherm low-pr...Figure 11.23 The shrinkage behavior of PAN in air up to 340 °C [70].Figure 11.24 The shrinkage behavior of PAN with 6% MA and 2% ITA for differe...Figure 11.25 Correlation of shrinkage and heat flow measurement [66].Figure 11.26 Equilibrium state between stretching entanglement and entropic ...Figure 11.27 Molecular models as basis for shrinkage prediction in fiber axi...Figure 11.28 Elongation of the polymer chain overcompensating the reaction s...Figure 11.29 Structural model of PAN fibers.Figure 11.30 Elastic behavior of PAN fibers with 6% MA and 2% ITA during sta...Figure 11.31 Process control of PAN
