[51].Figure 11.33 Carbonization furnace at SGL Technic Ltd. [51].Figure 11.34 Temperature profile in carbonization furnace.Figure 11.35 Maximum C‐fiber yield correlated with fiber density after stabi...Figure 11.36 Maximal C‐fiber yield correlated with residence time at differe...Figure 11.37 Tensile strength after different stabilization treatments. (a) ...Figure 11.38 Shrinkage during carbonization as indicator for a sufficient st...Figure 11.39 Density after carbonization as indicator for a sufficient stabi...Figure 11.40 The effect of oxygen uptake during stabilization on the strengt...Figure 11.41 Effects of heat post‐treatment of carbon fibers (PAN + 6% MA + ...Figure 11.42 Oxide complexes on surface‐treated carbon fibers and their affi...Figure 11.43 Gases (CO2, CO) liberated during thermal desorption of surface‐...Figure 11.44 Amount of surface oxides formed by thermal, wet, and anodic sur...Figure 11.45 Thermal oxidation rates (Arrhenius plots) of HM‐ and HT‐type ca...Figure 11.46 Specific strength and specific modulus of various commercial ca...Figure 11.47 Influence of gauge length at test samples (carbon fibers/SiC fi...Figure 11.48 Influence of fiber diameter on tensile strength of commercial c...Figure 11.49 High‐resolution TEM of highly graphitized carbon structure [95]...Figure 11.50 TEM bright‐field images (cut perpendicular to the fiber axis) [...Figure 11.51 Young's modulus of various types of carbon fibers correlated wi...Figure 11.52 Mean interlayer distances c/2 of various commercial carbon fibe...Figure 11.53 Effect of high‐temperature heat treatment on the ultrastructure...Figure 11.54 Lattice defects in carbon fibers (schematically).Figure 11.55 Morphological defects within a carbon fiber structure model [98...Figure 11.56 Structural models of carbon fibers. (a) Two‐dimensional model p...Figure 11.57 Structural development of the graphitic layers within the carbo...Figure 11.58 AFM image of graphite (a). The hexagonal carbon rings and the c...Figure 11.59 Influence of the final heat treatment temperature on the degree...Figure 11.60 LOI values of nonflammable textile fibers[110].Figure 11.61 Thermal stability of PANOX® compared with aramid and carbon fib...Figure 11.62 Fiber elongation behavior of PANOX® [110]..Figure 11.63 Protective clothing based on infusible and inflammable stabiliz...Figure 11.64 Fire‐blocking felts for motor vehicles [109].Figure 11.65 Carbon–carbon aircraft brake disks based on stabilized polyacry...Figure 11.66 400k heavy tows with 50k subtows [109].Figure 11.67 50k heavy tows for production of carbon fiber noncrimped fabric...Figure 11.68 400k heavy tows deposited in boxes [109].Figure 11.69 Cut fibers (a) and milled fibers (b) [109].Figure 11.70 Conductivity of polycarbonate with carbon fiber loading [111]....Figure 11.71 Relative mechanical properties of carbon fiber‐filled polycarbo...Figure 11.72 BMW i8 electrical hybrid sports car [112].Figure 11.73 Brake disk for the Porsche Macan S [117].Figure 11.74 Wind energy farms [118].Figure 11.75 Unidirectional carbon fiber tape fixed with a polyester yarn [1...Figure 11.76 Carbon fiber composites in fuselage and wings [118].Figure 11.77 Carbon fiber composites in snowboards [118].Figure 11.78 Robotic arm made of CFRP [118].Figure 11.79 Carbon‐based knitted Fabric[120].Figure 11.80 Typical properties of epoxy prepreg with SIGRAFIL continuous ca...Figure 11.81 Increase of bending strength for a PA6 matrix with a thermoplas...Figure 11.82 Global demand of carbon fibers in ktons from 2009 to 2021 (est...Figure 11.83 Carbon fiber capacity by manufacturer in ktons (2014) [125]....Figure 11.84 Carbon fiber demand by applications in ktons (2014) [121,125]....Figure 11.85 Primary energy demand for CFRP‐production (duromeric resin) app...27 Chapter 12-1Figure 12.1.1 Unidirectional and quasi‐isotropic laminates.Figure 12.1.2 The principle of hand lamination. (a) fiber mat, (b) fiber fab...Figure 12.1.3 Various types of weaves. (a) Plain, (b) 2/2 twill, (c) mock le...Figure 12.1.4 Principle of pultrusion and filament winding. (A) Vertical pul...Figure 12.1.5 Lamination of an aerospace component by prepreg technology....Figure 12.1.6 Example of a tow‐placement facility.Figure 12.1.7 Typical vacuum bagging setup for autoclave curing.Figure 12.1.8 Typical autoclave cycle.Figure 12.1.9 Principle of a manufacturing device for non‐crimped fabric pro...Figure 12.1.10 Example of a 3D braiding machine.Figure 12.1.11 Typical profiles realized by 3D braiding.Figure 12.1.12 Robot‐assisted tunnel braider.Figure 12.1.13 Manufacturing of complex profiles by braiding and folding.Figure 12.1.14 Typical embroidery machine and preform examples.Figure 12.1.15 Stitching of basic preforms to realize integrated textile str...Figure 12.1.16 Example of a highly integrated preforms based on stitched bas...Figure 12.1.17 Various single‐side stitching heads.Figure 12.1.18 Fiber geometry of various 3D stitching technologies.Figure 12.1.19 Setup of the vacuum‐assisted process (VAP) for preform inject...Figure 12.1.20 Process chain for manufacturing continuous fiber‐reinforced t...Figure 12.1.21 Impregnation of a woven textile by macro‐ and micro‐impregnat...Figure 12.1.22 Press technologies for manufacturing organic sheets.Figure 12.1.23 Semicontinuous press technology for profile manufacturing.Figure 12.1.24 Thermoforming of organic sheets.Figure 12.1.25 Friction welding of thermoplastic fiber‐reinforced polymer co...Figure 12.1.26 Process description of continuous induction welding.Figure 12.1.27 Combination of forming and joining in one step (tailored blan...Figure 12.1.28 Parts manufactured by hybrid processing of thermoforming and ...Figure 12.1.29 Offline combination of thermoforming and thermoplastic tape p...Figure 12.1.30 Mattheck design model following the example of nature.Figure 12.1.31 Influence of fiber angle on the mechanical performance of com...Figure 12.1.32 Mechanical performance depending on in‐plane fiber orientatio...Figure 12.1.33 Illustration of the major factors influencing the performance...Figure 12.1.34 Crash behavior of a 3D reinforced braided tube.Figure 12.1.35 Some tested crash elements showing the different failure mode...Figure 12.1.36 Cross‐ply laminate (half of the thickness), showing a regular...Figure 12.1.37 Fatigue strength of structural materials relative to their ul...Figure 12.1.38 Development of the use of fiber composites.Figure 12.1.39 Application of composites in the Airbus A380.Figure 12.1.40 Manufacturing of the crash beams of the McLaren Mercedes SLR ...Figure 12.1.41 CFRP layers for high‐performance synchronizer rings in automo...Figure 12.1.42 Wind‐energy economics driven by size.Figure 12.1.43 Performance of various lightweight materials and composites w...Figure 12.1.44 Advantage of CFRP construction elements compared with convent...Figure 12.1.45 (a) KUKA robot with carbon fiber composite arm. (b) CFRP robo...Figure 12.1.46 Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of CFRP as a function ...Figure 12.1.47 (a) CFRP lens mounting and (b) expansion‐free CFRP components...Figure 12.1.48 Examples of CFRP construction elements: (a) CFRP profile made...Figure 12.1.49 CFRP buncher bow for a wire strand machine.Figure 12.1.50 X‐ray transparency of various materials.Figure 12.1.51 X‐ray inspection equipment. (a) C‐ arm system and (b) support...Figure 12.1.52 X‐ray‐transparent head fixation for an operating table.Figure 12.1.53 Robo‐Wrapper for reinforcement of a bridge column with a CFRP...
28 Chapter 12-2Figure 12.2.1 Carbon fiber reinforced carbon: a fracture‐tough ceramic [1]....Figure 12.2.2 Specific mechanical strength as a function of temperature for ...Figure 12.2.3 Multidimensional fiber structures [8].Figure 12.2.4 Specific mechanical strength and stiffness of various fiber ma...Figure 12.2.5 Mechanical strength and elastic modulus as a function of the f...Figure 12.2.6 Influence of graphite additive on the shrinkage behavior of CF...Figure 12.2.7 Pressure dependence of carbon yield for petroleum pitches [4]....Figure 12.2.8 Structure of a pyrolytically deposited carbon coating (typical...Figure 12.2.9 Overview of CFRC manufacturing processes [44].Figure 12.2.10 Equipment for production of solvent‐free phenolic resin prepr...Figure 12.2.11 Mechanical strength of unidirectional CFRC as a function of f...Figure 12.2.12 Curing cycle for the phenolic resin prepreg in the press [50]...Figure 12.2.13 Schematic diagram of a winding machine based on the principle...Figure 12.2.14 Manufacturing a crucible on a five‐axis winding mandrel [44,5...Figure 12.2.15 Schematic of the vacuum bag process [54]. (a) Laminating core...Figure 12.2.16 Vacuum bag component in front of the curing autoclave [44].Figure 12.2.17 A five meter long CFRC mold for superplastic shaping of compo...Figure 12.2.18 A component in the CFRP state with laminated‐on stringers for...Figure 12.2.19 Local reinforcement for the introduction of screw threads [55...Figure 12.2.20 3D net shape fiber structures.Figure 12.2.21 Typical decomposition products in the pyrolysis of phenolic r...Figure 12.2.22 Industrial carbonization ovens for the manufacture of CFRC [1...Figure 12.2.23 Typical impregnation autoclave [5,63].Figure 12.2.24 Light micrograph of carbon fibers with infiltrated pyrocarbon...Figure 12.2.25 Various post‐densification structures with resin, pitch, or p...Figure 12.2.26 Equilibrium concentrations in the C–H system [66].Figure 12.2.27 Fine laminar (a), coarse laminar (b), and isotropic (c) pyroc...Figure 12.2.28 Typical process parameters and thresholds for soot buildup in...Figure 12.2.29 Basic layout of a
