to be done. These employees are not able to offer creative solutions to help the organizations advance.
The assumptions of Theory Y are that, in the context of the right conditions, people enjoy their work; can show self‐control and discipline; are able to contribute creatively; and are motivated by ties to the group, the organization, and the work itself. In essence, this view espouses the belief that people are intrinsically motivated by their work. Theory Y was a guide for managers to take advantage of the potential of each person, which McGregor thought was being only partially utilized, and to provide support and encouragement to employees to do good work (McGregor, 1960).
OUCHI'S THEORY Z
Theory Z was developed by William Ouchi (1981) based on his years of study of organizations in Japan. He identified that Japanese organizations had better productivity than organizations in the United States and that they were managed differently with their use of quality circles to pursue better productivity and quality. Theory Z focuses on a better way of motivating people through their involvement. The organization invests in its employees and considers both home and work issues when creating a path for career development. Democratic leaders, who are skilled in interpersonal relations, foster employee involvement (Ouchi, 1981).
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation centers around what people want and their prospect of getting it (Vroom, 1964). There are three variables in Vroom's motivation theory. They are force, valence, and expectancy. Force describes the amount of effort one will exert to reach one's goal. Valence speaks to the level of attractiveness or unattractiveness of the goal. Valence is graded between +1, an outcome that is highly attractive to the individual, and −1, a highly unattractive goal. A valence of 0 indicates the goal does not interest the individual. Expectancy is the perceived possibility that the goal will be achieved. Expectancy is evaluated between 1 and 0. A score of 1 indicates assurance that the goal will be achieved, and a score of 0 indicates that the individual sees the goal as impossible to achieve. Vroom's theory appears in the form of an equation as Force = Valence × Expectancy. Vroom proposes that this equation can help to predict the motivation of an individual to achieve a goal as negative, neutral, or positive based on the underlying notion that our expectations affect our motivation.
Motivation theories are useful because they help explain why people act the way they do and how a manager can relate to individuals as human beings and workers. When you are interested in creating change, influencing others, and managing patient care outcomes, it is helpful to understand the motivation that is reflected in a person's behavior. Motivation is a critical part of leadership because we need to understand each other to lead effectively. See Table 1.6 for common motivation problems and potential solutions.
Table 1.6 Common Employee Motivation Problems and Potential Solutions
| Motivation problems | Potential solutions |
|---|---|
| Inadequate performance definition (i.e., lack of goals, inadequate job descriptions, inadequate performance standards, inadequate performance assessment) | Well‐defined job descriptionsGoal settingWell‐defined performance standardsClear feedback on performanceImproved employee selectionJob redesign or enrichment |
| Impediments to performance (i.e., bureaucratic or environmental obstacles, inadequate support or resources, poor employee‐job matching, inadequate job information) | Enhanced Hygiene Maintenance Factors (i.e., safe and clean environment, good salary, future education reimbursement, fringe benefits, job security, good staffing, time off job, good equipment, pay for performance, clear job descriptions, good hiring practices, |
| Inadequate performance‐reward linkages (i.e., inappropriate or inadequate job rewards, poor timing of rewards, low probability of receiving rewards, inequity in distribution of rewards) | Enhanced job achievement or growth rewards (i.e., increased employee involvement and participation, job redesign or enrichment, career planning, professional development opportunities)Enhanced job esteem or power factors (i.e., job autonomy or personal control, self‐management, modified work schedule, recognition, praise or awards, opportunity to display skills or talents, opportunity to mentor or train others, promotions in rank or position, clear information concerning organization or department, preferred work activities or projects, letters of recommendation, preferred work space)Enhanced affiliation or relatedness factors (i.e., recognized work teams and task groups; opportunities to attend conferences, social activities, and professional nursing, hospital, and community committees and join a Board of Directors) |
Source: Compiled with information from Burns, L. R., Bradley, E. H., & Weiner, B. J. (2020). Shortell & Kaluzny’s health care management: Organization design and behavior. 6th ed. Chapter 4: Motivating People). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Bradley, E. H., & Weiner, B. J. (2020).
KEY CONCEPTS
Nurses are leaders and make a difference through their contributions of expert knowledge and leadership to patients and to health care organizations.
Leadership development is a necessary component of preparation as a health care provider.
All nurses are leaders because they have expert knowledge that they contribute to coordinate and provide patient care.
Leadership is a process of influence that involves the leader, the follower, and their interaction. Followers can be individuals, groups of people, communities, and members of society in general.
Leadership can be formal or informal. It can occur by being in a position of leadership and authority in an organization, such as a manager. Leadership can also occur outside the scope of a formal leadership role, such as when an individual or member of a group moves to assume leadership.
Nurses are leaders. They lead nursing practice. Nurses lead other nurses, and they lead patients and communities toward improved health.
Leadership styles are described as autocratic, democratic, and laissez‐faire. They have been studied by examining job‐centered or task‐oriented leadership approaches versus employee‐centered or relationship‐oriented leadership approaches.
Contingency theories of leadership acknowledge that other factors in the environment, in addition to the leader's behavior, affect the effectiveness of the leader. Variables that substitute for leadership eliminate the need for leadership or nullify the effect of the leader's behavior. Charismatic Leadership Theory describes leader behavior that displays self‐confidence, passion, and communication of high expectations and confidence in others. These types of leaders often emerge in a crisis with a vision, have an appeal based on their personal power, and often use unconventional strategies and their emotional connections to succeed.
Transformational leadership theory involves two styles of leadership: the transactional leader and the transformational leader. Transactional leaders focus on organizational operations and short‐term goals. Transformational leaders inspire and motivate others to excel and participate in a vision that goes beyond self‐interests. Transformational leadership is believed to empower followers and contribute to their commitment to action and change.
Management is
