in this book.8 8. Claude Mauriac, Le Temps immobile 3: Et comme l’espérance est violente, Paris: Grasset, 1986 [1976], 341–2; Le Temps immobile 9: Mauriac et fils, Paris: Grasset, 1986, 291.
9 9. See Didier Eribon, Michel Foucault, Paris: Flammarion, 3rd edn, 2011, 95–8; Michel Foucault, trans. Betsy Wing, London: Faber, 1991, 54–6 (hereafter French and English are cited separated by /); Macey, The Lives of Michel Foucault, 41–2. Eribon’s third edition is updated; the English translation is of the first edition. I will occasionally make reference to the first and second French editions.
10 10. C 18/18; Eribon, Michel Foucault, 98/55–6.
11 11. Philippe Artières, ‘Un Frère: Entretien avec Denys Foucault’, CH 35; Artières et al., LMD 8/vii.
12 12. Paul Foucault, Titres et travaux scientifiques, Poitiers: Imprimerie du Poitou, 1926.
13 13. DE#20 I, 293–325; EW II 103–22; Folie, Langage, Littérature, ed. Henri-Paul Fruchaud, Daniele Lorenzini and Judith Revel, Paris: Vrin, 2019, 265–86, 287–304.
14 14. These texts mainly appear in DE I, with some translated in EW II. See also DL, Folie, Langage, Littérature, and LMD. They will be fully discussed in The Archaeology of Foucault.
15 15. See Elden, Foucault’s Last Decade, 114.
16 16. Eribon, Michel Foucault, 73/40; see Macey, The Lives of Michel Foucault, 49.
17 17. Artières et al. ‘Dans l’atelier Foucault’, 954.
18 18. The Bastille archives were used for a project envisioned from the late 1950s, but not finally published until 1982. Arlette Farge and Michel Foucault, Le Désordre des familles: Lettres de cachet des Archives de la Bastille au XVIIIe siècle, Paris: Julliard/Gallimard, 1982; Disorderly Families: Infamous Letters from the Bastille Archives, ed. Nancy Luxon, trans. Thomas Scott-Railton, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017. See Elden, Foucault’s Last Decade, 192–4; and Nancy Luxon (ed.), Archives of Infamy: Foucault on State Power in the Lives of Ordinary Citizens, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2019.
19 19. See Elden, Foucault’s Last Decade, 207–8.
1 Studying Philosophy and Psychology in Paris
Foucault moved to the Lycée Henri-IV in Paris in 1945 shortly after the war ended, where he was briefly taught by Hyppolite. Foucault studied philosophy, history and literature in French, German, English, Latin and Greek, reading widely in classical texts. This was the khâgne class to prepare for the concours entrance exam for the ENS. Foucault had failed that exam in 1945 while still studying in Poitiers, but passed in 1946.1 He had also support from Maurice Rat, a family friend who taught at the Lycée Janson-de-Sailly and had passed the agrégation in grammar in 1919.2 Foucault entered the ENS in Autumn 1946 and over the next several years he attended lectures both at its rue d’Ulm site and at the nearby Sorbonne. Foucault was awarded a licence in philosophy in 1948 and one in psychology in 1949. He also received a diplôme in general psychology from the Paris Institut de Psychologie in 1949.3 At the ENS Foucault was taught by Jean Beaufret, Jean-Toussaint Desanti, Merleau-Ponty and, from 1948, Louis Althusser. At the Sorbonne he attended classes by Daniel Lagache and Julian Ajuriaguerra on psychiatric science; Henri Gouhier, Merleau-Ponty, Wahl and Hyppolite on philosophy.4 While he also read his teachers’ work, much of their importance comes from the classes they taught. Years later, Lagache was on Foucault’s thesis jury, Gouhier its chair, Hyppolite the rapporteur for his second thesis (see Chapter 8).
Philosophy and its History
Beaufret taught widely across the history of philosophy. He is best known as the recipient of Heidegger’s Letter on Humanism, sent in response to questions Beaufret posed in 1946.5 He is the author of the four-volume Dialogues avec Heidegger,6 and known for his long introduction and translation of Parmenides’ poem, often known as ‘On Nature’.7 However, Beaufret apparently never taught a course on Heidegger, thinking his thought could not be summarized.8 Instead his teaching covered Plato and Aristotle; Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza; Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche and Husserl.9 Heidegger’s thought does influence much of Beaufret’s teaching: with the exception of Spinoza, these figures were the focus of most of Heidegger’s own teaching career. Foucault kept notes on what appear to be lectures by Beaufret on Kant and Spinoza.10 Beaufret eventually taught a short course on Heidegger’s Being and Time at a lycée in 1972.11 Beaufret fought for France in the war, escaped from a prisoner-of-war camp, and joined the resistance. He has been criticized for his uncritical attitude to Heidegger’s Nazi past and for his own alleged anti-Semitism and Holocaust denial.12
Desanti was a philosopher of mathematics, a student of Jean Cavaillès, but also a phenomenologist, Spinoza scholar and a member of the PCF until 1956.13 When Jacques Derrida finally submitted his Doctorat d’État in 1980, based on publications, it was directed by Desanti. Derrida’s original supervisor had been Hyppolite, but that thesis was never completed.14 Gouhier mainly worked on French philosophy between Descartes and Bergson, and it seems Foucault attended lectures by him on both.15 Gouhier was also an authority on the theatre, and also helped to edit works by Maine de Biran, Auguste Comte and Henri Bergson’s lectures.16 He was the supervisor of Pierre Bourdieu’s dissertation on Leibniz, a translation and commentary on the Animadversiones in partem generalem Principiorum cartesianorum.17 In 1978 Gouhier would invite Foucault to a lecture to the Société française de philosophie only published after Foucault’s death, known as ‘What is Critique?’18
These figures gave Foucault a broad education in philosophy, but central to his subsequent development was Wahl, a wide-ranging philosopher and historian of philosophy, who worked especially on Plato, Hegel, Nietzsche and Heidegger. He wrote a key work for the French engagement with Hegel in 1929 and a major, 750-page study of Kierkegaard in 1938, one of the first French engagements with existentialism.19 His Human Existence and Transcendence was published in 1944 but, unlike Jean-Paul Sartre’s work from the previous year, has only recently been translated.20 Wahl was also significant in terms of his engagement with Anglophone work, a textbook on French philosophy, and a general introduction on Philosophies of Existence.21 Wahl ran the Collège philosophique at which Derrida presented ‘Cogito and the History of Madness’ in 1963; and would invite Foucault to give the ‘What is an Author?’ lecture to the Société française de philosophie in 1969.22
Crucially for Foucault, Wahl taught on Heidegger from the mid 1940s through the 1950s. Derrida recalls that Heidegger was very much a presence at the ENS due to Beaufret and Hyppolite.23 But Wahl’s Sorbonne courses did much more. They were based on both on his reading of published texts, but also his knowledge of Heidegger’s courses of the 1920s and 1930s.24 Despite some reports, Wahl did not attend lectures himself, noting in a letter to Heidegger of December 1937 that he ‘would love to meet with you one day. But all sorts of obstacles stand in the way at present.’25 Foremost among those obstacles was his Jewish heritage, which meant he left Europe during the war. But Wahl certainly had access to notes from Heidegger’s courses.
Wahl’s introductory course from January to June 1946 discussed Being and Time, but also Heidegger’s work on Kant and his discussion of truth, which as Jean Montenot notes closely parallels Heidegger’s own 1928–9 course at the University of Freiburg Einleitung in die Philosophie [Introduction to
