are inevitable. Hence, anyone who has corrections, comments or alternative information that might lead to modifications or improvement of the account is encouraged to contact me, either directly or through the publisher.
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Scant Resources
IN 1919 THE ROYAL Navy could muster 438,000 men, 58 capital ships, 12 aircraft carriers, 103 cruisers, 456 destroyers and 122 submarines. Great Britain was the unchallenged master of the seas. Economic and social reforms were necessary, though, and reduced military spending was inevitable. Arguments that sustaining an armaments industry would help maintain employment and stimulate new industries were dismissed. The British politicians had no choice but to follow a course that would lead to a dramatic development for the armed forces. The army was cut to little more than an imperial police force. The Royal Navy and the newly established Royal Air Force fared relatively better but still faced dramatic cutbacks. The Royal Navy would fall to almost insignificance within ten years. One by one, the shipbuilding and ordnance companies collapsed or merged to preserve a minimum of employment and competence. First Sea Lord Admiral Beatty was shocked and stubbornly continued to plan for a renewal of the fleet, including battleships and carriers, arguing that the strategic needs of the empire could only be met by naval superiority.1 This was not to be.
The Washington Naval Treaty signed on 1 February 1922 allowed the Royal Navy to retain twenty-two capital ships, most of them of the 25,750-ton, 15-inch gun Queen Elizabeth-class, with the notable exception of Hood, which floated a substantial 41,200 tons. In the ‘Special Programme of Naval Construction’ of 1923 that gave the priorities for the remainder of the decade, some of the retained capital ships were listed for upgrading while four were scrapped, allowing for the building of two new ones – Nelson and Rodney. To remain below 35,000 tons while keeping their 16-inch guns, all three triple turrets were positioned forward, with the after hull trimmed short. The day of the capital ship was nearly over, though, and within two decades, the aircraft carrier would replace the capital ships as the ultimate naval weapon, supported by simpler, less expensive warships and submarines.
By the early 1930s, the Royal Navy had shrunk to two main fleets, the Home Fleet and the Mediterranean Fleet. Cruiser squadrons were maintained at the West Indies, North America, Cape, East Indies and China stations. Later still, economic constraints led to some of these being replaced by sloops and other smaller ships performing ‘cruiser tasks’. In 1939, the Home Fleet was still a significant force but of mixed vintage and inadequately balanced for full tactical efficiency. In addition to the battleships Rodney, Nelson, Ramillies, Royal Oak and Royal Sovereign, the battlecruisers Hood, Renown and Repulse were under command, as were the aircraft carriers Ark Royal and Furious, twelve cruisers, seventeen destroyers and sixteen submarines in addition to minesweepers and support ships. An additional two cruisers and nine destroyers were stationed in the Humber. The battleships Revenge and Resolution with the carriers Hermes and Courageous, three A/A cruisers and nine destroyers were deployed at Portland, in addition to destroyers and light forces in Harwich, Dover, Portsmouth, Plymouth and Milford Haven.2
Battlecruiser Renown was originally commissioned in September 1916. By 1939, she had effectively been reconstructed. Among the improvements were high-pressure boilers and Parson-geared turbines, upgraded 15-inch gun turrets and completely new 4.5-inch dual-purpose secondary gun armament. She could do just over 30 knots but became very wet forward if she did. (Wright and Logan – W&L)
Ramillies, Royal Sovereign, Royal Oak and Repulse lacked modernisation and, although they would be dangerous to most opponents in terms of guns, they were so slow that for all practical purposes they were useless. Only Hood and the modernised Renown were fast enough to catch the German ‘pocket’ battleships, and both would be a match for Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in an equal fight.3 Hood, the pride of the fleet, was ageing and due for extensive upgrades and modernisation in September 1939 – which she would never have. Nelson and Rodney were still relatively modern with powerful main guns and armour, but very slow. The lack of speed in the British capital ships meant that to catch the German battleships they would have to rely on surprise or damage by torpedoes from submarines, destroyers or aircraft – even more difficult as the German capital ships had efficient radars installed.
At the end of WWI, the Royal Navy had some forty modern cruisers in commission and a further nine under construction. Most of these were small, with 6-inch guns, suitable for the North Sea and the Mediterranean. For the protection of Atlantic and Asian trade routes, larger ships were needed. The Washington Treaty allowed for 10,000 tons and 8-inch guns, so eleven County-class cruisers were ordered in 1924–26.4 These were seaworthy ships and could maintain speed in rough seas, being stable gun platforms with a good rate of fire and a superior director system. To stay within the limitations, a top speed of 32 knots had to be accepted, and the ships were vulnerable to bombing throughout their careers, due to reduced armour. Several of them would play important roles in the early years of WWII.
Shortage of funds forced simplifications and in 1928 York was launched, followed by the modified Exeter a year later. These were some 8,000 tons, carrying three twin 8-inch gun turrets. Further reductions were needed, and 6-inch guns became the hallmark of British cruiser design in the 1930s. Although it was half the weight of an 8-inch shell, it was argued that the rapid rate of fire of the 6-inch guns would give a superior weight of broadside if it could shorten the range fast enough to avoid lethal damage from long-range heavier guns.
Five Leander-class,5 three Arethusa-class6 and eight Southampton-class7 cruisers were launched between 1931 and 1937. The Leanders were some 7,200 tons with eight 6-inch guns, while the Arethusas carried six 6-inch guns at 5,250 tons. The Southamptons carried a formidable twelve 6-inch guns in four three-gun turrets, but this required a displacement of over 9,000 tons. In 1938 the even larger Belfast and Edinburgh were launched but these would not be operational until after the outbreak of war. At the start of the war, the Royal Navy had fifty-seven cruisers in commission, of which thirty-seven were modern designs.8
The successful V&W-class and their modifications constituted the mainstay of the Royal Navy destroyer force in the 1920s. New ships were needed, however, and after extensive testing – including prototypes – the Admiralty settled for a new design during 1927–28. Funds were made available and the building of almost eighty fast, agile and seaworthy destroyers commenced. Running through nine batches, these were known as the A- to I-classes, produced, with minor modifications, at a rate of eight per year, with a flotilla leader for each group. The leaders were larger, somewhat better equipped and most of them carried a fifth gun amidships. Building usually took less than a year from the laying down of the the keel to launch. Fitting out took another year, but as the crews were normally transferred from one of the older destroyers in for refit or being paid off, commissioning and working up was smooth.
Cruiser Norfolk, 24 May 1939, at Devonport. The County-class cruisers were 10,000-ton ships with eight 8-inch guns in twin mounts. (Keystone)
Destroyer Firedrake showing off in high seas. She was one of the 1,400-ton F-class destroyers,
