terrestrial zoogeographic realms and regions of the world."/>
Figure 1.9. “Map of the terrestrial zoogeographic realms and regions of the world” (Holt et al. 2013, Figure 1.1). For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/guilbert/biogeography.zip
1.4. Conclusion
It is impossible to practice biogeography without an area classification, whether those areas are simply geopolitical, geographical or based on endemism or taxonomic distribution. The plant and animal geographies of the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries have shown us that no matter how you divide up the world, you have to call your areas something. How plant and animal biogeographers define their areas also depends on the background of the authors. Humboldt, a naturalist, wished to use plant form and vegetation; de Candolle, a taxonomist (in fact, he coined the term taxonomy), used the distributions of species in what was later described as topographical plant geography; Schouw, following in the Humboldtian tradition, used vegetation; Alphonse de Candolle, a systematist, preferred to use endemism; Mayr, an evolutionary biologist, wanted to use populations or elements. Regardless, they were all doing the same thing, area classification, in order to express their theories of the world using a variety of different methods. Yet, area classification seemingly had its detractors, namely those who thought it was static or artificial. These objections were mostly about how areas are defined, rather than area classification per se. Area classification will always be practiced as long as there is a study of the distribution of organisms.
1.5. References
Brundin, L. (1966). Transantarctic relationship and their significance, as evidenced by chironomid midges. With a monograph of the subfamilies Podonominae and Aphroteniinae and the austral Heptagyiae. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar, 11, 1–472.
de Candolle, A.P. (1805). Explication de la carte botanique de la France. In Flore française, ou descriptions succinctes de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France : disposées selon une nouvelle méthode d’analyse, et précédées par un exposé des principes élémentaires de la botanique, 3rd edition, de Lamarck, J-B.P.A. and de Candolle, A.P. (eds). Desray, Paris.
de Candolle, A.P. (1820). Essai élémentaire de géographie botanique. In Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, Levrault, F.G. (ed.). Paris.
de Candolle, A.L.P.P. (1855). Géographie botanique raisonnée. Masson, Paris.
Clements, F. (1905). Research Methods in Ecology. University Publishing Company, Lincoln, NE.
Cowles, H.C. (1908). An ecological aspect of the conception of species. The American Naturalist, 42, 265–271.
Duck, M. and Petry, M. (2016). Goethe’s Exposure of Newton’s Theory: Apolemic on Newton’s Theory of Light and Colour. Imperial College Press, London.
Ebach, M.C. (2015). Origins of Biogeography – The Role of Biological Classification in Early Plant and Animal Geography. Springer, New York, NY.
Ebach, M.C. and Goujet, D. (2006). The first biogeographical map. Journal of Biogeography, 33, 761–769.
Escalante, T. and Morrone, J.J. (2020). Evolutionary biogeography and the regionalization of the Neotropics: A perspective from the mammals. Mastozoología Neotropical, 27, 4–14.
Fabricius, J.C. (1778). Philosophia entomologica. Impensis Carol. Ernest, Bohnii, Hamburg.
Forbes, E. (1856). Map of the distribution of marine life, illustrated chiefly by fishes, molluscs and radiata: Showing also the extent and limits of the homoiozoic belts. In The Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena (Plate 31), Johnston, A.K. (ed.). William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh.
Good, R. (1965). The Geography of Flowering Plants. Longmans, Green and Co., New York, NY.
Grisebach, A.H.R. (1866). Der gegenwärtige Standpunkt der Geographie der Pflanzen. Geographisches Jahrbuch, 1, 373–402.
Grisebach, A.H.R. (1872). Die Vegetation der Erde nach ihrer klimatischen Anordnung. Wilhelm Engelmann, Leipzig.
Hagen, J. (1986). Ecologists and taxonomists: Divergent traditions in twentieth-century plant geography. Journal of the History of Biology, 19, 197–214.
Haas, O. (1954). A geneticist on the taxonomic method. Systematic Zoology, 3(2), 65.
Heer, O. (1835). Die Vegetationsverhältnisse des sudöstlichens Theils des Cantons Glarus; ein Versuch, die pflanzengeographischen Erscheinungen der Alpen aus climatischen und Bodenverhältnissen abzuleiten. Orell, Fiissli, Zurich.
Hennig, W. (1950). Grundzüge einer Theorie der phylogenetischen Systematik. Deutsche Zentralverlag, Berlin.
Hennig, W. (1966). Phylogenetic Systematics. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.
Holt, B.G., Lessard, J., Borregaard, M.K., Fritz, S.A., Araújo, M.B., Dimitrov, D., Fabre, P.H., Graham, C.M., Graves, G.R., Jønsson, K.A., Nogués-Bravo, D., Wangm Z., Whittaker, R.J., Fjeldså, J., Rahbek, C. (2013). An update of Wallace’s zoogeographic regions of the world. Science, 339, 74–78.
von Humboldt, A. and Bonpland, A. (1807). Voyage de Humboldt et Bonpland. Première partie. Physique Générale, et relation historique du voyage. Premier Volume, Contenant Essai sur la Géographie des plantes, accompagné d’un Tableau physique des régions équinoxiales, et servant d’introduction à l’Ouvrage. Chez Fr. Schœll, Paris.
von Humboldt, A. and Bonpland, A. (1814–1829). Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent, During The Years 1799–1804. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, London.
von Humboldt, A. and Bonpland, A. (2009). Essay on the Geography of Plants. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Illiger, J.K.W. (1815). Überblick der Säugthiere nach ihrer Vertheilung über die Welttheile. Abhandlungen der physikalische Klasse der Koeniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1804–1811, 39–159.
Jordan, H. (1883). Zur Biogeographie der nördlich gemäßigten und arktischen Länder. Biologisches Centralblatt, 3(174–180), 207–217.
Kirby, W. and Spence, W. (1828). An Introduction to Entomology or the Elements of the Natural History of Insects, Volume 4. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, London.
Kreft, H. and Jetz, W. (2010). A framework for delineating biogeographical regions based on species distributions. Journal of Biogeography, 37, 2029–2053.
de Lamarck, J-B.P.A. and de Candolle, A.P. (eds) (1805). Flore française, ou descriptions succinctes de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France : disposées selon une nouvelle méthode d’analyse, et précédées par un exposé des principes élémentaires de la botanique, 3rd edition. Desray, Paris.
Latreille, P.A. (1815). Introduction à la géographie générale des arachnides et des insectes : ou des climats propres à ces animaux. Mémoire lu à l’Académie des Sciences, 3, 37–67.
Lorenz, J.R. (1863). Physicalische
