more concentrated waste, automatically becomes more attractive for re-use oriented treatment schemes.
Current mainstream technologies for wastewater treatment, such as activated sludge and tertiary nutrient removal are too costly to provide a satisfactory solution for the increasing wastewater problems in developing regions. Besides, these technologies do not allow for re-use of valuable energy and nutrients contained in the wastewater. This paper introduces a so called "Cleaner Production" concept to sewage management, which combines two approaches: pollution prevention, and re-use. Pollution prevention includes the shift towards low water use or dry sanitation technology. The remaining, more concentrated waste, automatically becomes more attractive for re-use oriented treatment schemes. The combination of anaerobic treatment, for energy recovery, and duckweed-based lagoons for pathogen removal and nutrient recovery is presented as an example of possible re-use strategies [1]. By selecting optimal applications of the duckweed biomass and lagoon effluent, nutrients will end up as fish protein (via duckweed feeding) and crop protein (via irrigation) [2]. The focus on duckweed as a key step in waste recycling is due to the fact that it forms the central unit of a recycling engine, driven by photosynthesis and therefore the process is energy efficient, cost effective and applicable under a wide variety of rural and urban conditions.
Although sometimes insufficient to cover actual costs, world-wide there exists a willingness to pay for drinking water services, since drinking water is recognized as a product [3]. The contrary is true when it comes to wastewater; the willingness to pay for wastewater collection and treatment is low or absent. If we compare costs per unit of volume, wastewater management is much more expensive than water supply.
A cleaner production check results in two main priority areas for action:
a) Pollution prevention.
This can effectively be achieved via reduction of domestic water consumption, which will reduce sewage volume and treatment costs.
b) Resource recovery and re-use.
A first step is to keep waste flows separate to optimize their potential for re-use. This approach starts at the level of the household, where grey water could be re-used for toilet flushing or garden irrigation. Besides the separation of grey and black water also urine could be collected separately for recovery of N and P fertilizer [2].
Such multi-functional use of the available space may greatly enhance the economical feasibility of the entire system. With the income from the products generated (energy, fish, irrigation water, recreation), the proposed integrated system has the potential to become a commercial enterprise generating substantial revenues [4].
1. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd17/6/land17061.htm
2. Larsen, T.A., Guyer, W. (1996). Separate management of anthropogenic nutrient solutions (human urine). Wat.Sci.Tech. 34:87-94
3. Gijzen H.J., Veenstra, S., (2001). Duckweed based wastewater treatment for rational resource recovery and re-use. In: Olguin, E. et al. (eds.) Environmental Biotechnology and cleaner bioprocesses, Tayler & Francis, in press.
4. Gunnerson, C.G., French, J.A. (1996). Wastewater management for coastal cities – The ocean disposal option. Sringer Verlag, Berlin, 340
Третьякова Д.А
In this article:
– A process of investments into Russia (the end of XIX – the beginning of XX centuries).
– The most important government‘s measurements of investments climate production are discussed.
– Foreign capital influence on the Russian industry development is analised.
Современные тенденции экономического развития России, направленные на привлечение иностранного капитала, имеют историческую основу. Иностранный капитал занимал достаточно прочные позиции в дореволюционной России. Значительный приток зарубежных инвестиций в экономику России отмечался еще в конце XIX века. Рейберн М.Х., бывший министром финансов в 1862 – 1878 годах, предпринял ряд мер, результатом которых стали значительные поступления иностранного капитала в страну.
В дальнейшем министры финансов последовательно проводили политику своего предшественника на привлечение иностранных инвестиций в Российскую империю, создавая для этого все условия. Министр финансов в 1887 – 1892 годах Вышнеградский И.А. указывал: "Привлечение иностранных капиталов представляется одним из необходимых условий для развития отечественной промышленности, внося усовершенствования в различные отрасли производства и способствуя распространению в рабочем населении полезных технических знаний, без которых многие отрасли фабрично-заводской деятельности остались бы для нас малодоступными".
Государство создавало благоприятные условия для функционирования иностранного капитала в России. Однако, привлекая иностранный капитал в страну, правительство в то же время стремилось создать такую законодательную базу для иностранных инвестиций, которая не позволила бы иностранному капиталу занять ведущие позиции в экономике. В последней трети XIX века государственная политика в отношении иностранного
