the first scientific responses to this new technology was a voluntary moratorium on certain experiments that were thought to be potentially hazardous. This research ban was self-imposed by a group of molecular biologists, including Cohen and Boyer. They were concerned that combining genes from two different organisms might accidentally create a novel organism with undesirable and dangerous properties. Within a few years, however, these apprehensions were allayed as scientists gained laboratory experience with this technology and safety guidelines were formulated for recombinant DNA research. The temporary cessation of some recombinant DNA research projects did not dampen the enthusiasm for genetic engineering. In fact, the new technology continued to receive unprecedented attention from both the public and the scientific community.
Molecular biotechnology can benefit humanity by
providing opportunities to accurately diagnose, prevent, or cure a wide range of infectious and genetic diseases
increasing crop yields by creating plants that are resistant to insect predation, fungal and viral diseases, and environmental stresses such as short-term drought and excessive heat, and at the same time reduce applications of hazardous agrichemicals
creating microorganisms that will produce chemicals, antibiotics, polymers, amino acids, enzymes, and various food additives that are important for food production and other industries
developing livestock and other animals that have genetically enhanced attributes
facilitating the removal of pollutants and waste materials from the environment.
Although it is exciting and important to emphasize the positive aspects of new advances, there are also social concerns and consequences that must be addressed. For example,
Will some genetically engineered organisms, or their products, be harmful to humans or other organisms, or to the environment?
Will the development and use of genetically engineered organisms reduce natural biological diversity?
Should humans be genetically manipulated?
Will new diagnostic procedures, especially those based on genome sequencing, undermine individual privacy?
Will financial support for molecular biotechnology constrain the development of other important technologies?
Will the emphasis on commercial success mean that the benefits of molecular biotechnology will be available only to wealthy individuals or nations?
Will agricultural molecular biotechnology undermine traditional farming practices?
Will medical therapies based on molecular biotechnology supersede equally effective traditional treatments?
Will the quest for patents inhibit the free exchange of ideas among research scientists?
These and many other issues have been considered by government commissions, discussed extensively at conferences, and thoughtfully debated and analyzed by individuals in both popular and academic publications. On this basis, regulations have been formulated, guidelines have been established, and policies have been created. There has been active and extensive participation by both scientists and the general public in deciding how molecular biotechnology should proceed, although some controversies still remain.
Molecular biotechnology, with much fuss and fanfare, became a comprehensive scientific and commercial venture in a remarkably short period of time. Many scientific and business publications are now devoted to molecular biotechnology, and graduate and undergraduate programs and courses are available at universities throughout the world to teach molecular biotechnology. It could be debated whether the early promise of biotechnology has been fulfilled as it was predicted to in a 1987 document published by the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment which declared that molecular biotechnology is “a new scientific revolution that could change the lives and futures of … citizens as dramatically as did the Industrial Revolution two centuries ago and the computer revolution today. The ability to manipulate genetic material to achieve specified outcomes in living organisms … promises major changes in many aspects of modern life.” It does, however, offer solutions to some serious global problems including the spread of infectious diseases, the burden of waste accumulation, and food shortages that may become increasingly dire as the climate changes. The potential of molecular biotechnology to solve some of these imminent problems is the subject of this book.
summary
In 1973, Stanley Cohen, Herbert Boyer, and their coworkers devised a method for transferring genetic information (genes) from one organism to another. This procedure, which became known as recombinant DNA technology, enabled researchers to isolate specific genes and perpetuate them in host organisms. Recombinant DNA technology has been beneficial to many different areas of study. However, its impact on biotechnology has been extraordinary.
Biotechnology uses organisms, often on a large scale, for the production of commercially important products. Before the advent of recombinant DNA technology, the most effective way of increasing the productivity of an organism was to induce mutations and then use selection procedures to identify organisms with superior traits. This process was not foolproof; it was time-consuming, labor-intensive, and costly, and only a small set of traits could be enhanced in this way. Recombinant DNA technology, however, provided a rapid, efficient, and powerful means for creating organisms with specific and expanded genetic attributes. The tools of recombinant DNA technology enable microorganisms, plants, and animals to be genetically engineered. Combining recombinant DNA technology with biotechnology created a dynamic and exciting discipline called molecular biotechnology.
A large number of molecular biotechnology products are currently available. Many vaccines and protein and nucleic acid therapeutics are produced in genetically engineered microorganisms, mammalian cells, or transgenic animals and used to treat a variety of diseases in humans and animals. Molecular diagnostic tests produced through recombinant DNA technology detect specific proteins or nucleic acid sequences that indicate susceptibility to, or progress of, a disease, or response to a treatment. Proteins or small molecules of industrial importance are often produced on a large scale by genetically engineered microorganisms. Increased agricultural output has been possible due to the development of transgenic plants that are resistant to pests, pathogens, and abiotic stresses such as drought and salt. A recent milestone was the approval of the first genetically engineered animal (a salmon) for human consumption by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2015. The salmon, which has an enhanced growth rate, is expected to be in markets before 2018. Many more exciting solutions to medical, environmental, industrial, and agricultural problems are under development.
Because of its broad impact, molecular biotechnology has been scrutinized carefully for its potential effects on society. Some of the concerns that have been raised are its safety, possible negative effects on the environment, and the private or public ownership of genetically engineered organisms.
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