the academic philosophical tradition and phenomenology’, but also took this work into a range of related fields, including ‘the intelligibility of the world, the real’ (DE#281 IV, 48; EW III, 247). Later in the same interview he expands: ‘A whole aspect of phenomenology took the form of an interrogation of science, in its foundation, its rationality, its history. The great texts of Edmund Husserl, of Alexandre Koyré, formed the other face of phenomenology, opposite the more existential phenomenology of the lived [le vécu] . . . In many respects, the work of Merleau-Ponty was an attempt to recapture the two dimensions of phenomenology’ (DE#281 IV, 53; EW III, 252). A few years earlier he had told Mauriac of his ‘fascination’ with him.154
A wide range of Merleau-Ponty’s lecture courses are published, some of which Foucault attended. Merleau-Ponty’s 1947–8 course Malebranche, Biran and Bergson on the Union of Body and Soul was delivered both at the University of Lyon and the ENS.155 The published edition is based on the Paris lectures, using audience notes because the original manuscript is missing. In the second edition, these notes are compared to those from Lyon by Michel Jouhaud, which shows that it was essentially the same course. Foucault attended in Paris, and Jacques Taminiaux tells the story of being told about the course by a friend, who said his own notes were ‘imprecise and not very legible’, and suggested that he speak to Foucault instead. Taminiaux says that Foucault ‘very graciously loaned me his notebook of lecture notes which were indeed very clear and detailed’. Taminiaux says that the notes were much read, but not copied by him, and so he was sorry when Foucault asked to retrieve the notes, something he suggests shows ‘how important and inspiring these lectures were for him’.156
Reading the course now it is hard to see what inspired Foucault so much. The course was written to link three thinkers who were on the curriculum for the agrégation that year. The topic of the body–soul relation was one that Merleau-Ponty had discussed in both The Structure of Behaviour and The Phenomenology of Perception and, while he was bound by the constraints of the curriculum, he nonetheless puts plenty of himself into the material. One crucial theme is the discussion of extension, and the critique of Descartes’s understanding of space.157 This, as in Merleau-Ponty’s wider work, is challenged by a corporeal spatiality.158 Foucault later recalls that it was in 1948 that Merleau-Ponty began engaging with Ferdinand de Saussure’s work on linguistics; a theme that continues into his later courses.159 Foucault’s interest at this time was quite different from the History of Madness. While that became his eventual doctoral thesis, his first, abandoned thesis was on the philosophy of psychology (see Chapter 2).
Merleau-Ponty taught at the Sorbonne from 1949–52, as Professor of Child Psychology and Pedagogy, succeeding Jean Piaget. Merleau-Ponty’s eight courses there concentrated on themes within the remit of his chair, from the consciousness and acquisition of language to their relation to others and the adult’s view of the child. Only one course was on a theme directly related to his better-known research interests – ‘The Human Sciences and Phenomenology’. Student notes from these lectures were transcribed, and approved by Merleau-Ponty for publication. They appeared in the University of Paris’s Bulletin de psychologie, and then in various collected editions.160 Foucault references some of these in an unpublished manuscript on Merleau-Ponty (see Chapter 4).161 Some of the courses were translated into English in book form or in collections, before the definitive edition was translated entire.162
Merleau-Ponty was elected to the Collège de France in 1952, where he gave a sequence of courses on themes including the world, language, speech, institution, passivity, nature, ontology and philosophy today.163 These courses were brought to an abrupt end with his premature death at the age of fifty-three on 3 May 1961, just over two weeks before Foucault’s thesis defence. For much of Merleau-Ponty’s Collège de France career then, Foucault was outside France. Foucault could have attended Merleau-Ponty’s earliest courses there, but there is no indication that he did. In his inaugural course The Sensible World and the World of Expression from 1953, Merleau-Ponty explores ideas about space, time, the body and perception, which connect back to his Sorbonne lectures, but also to Foucault’s own research interests at the time.164 Merleau-Ponty shows how behavioural psychology and Gestalt theory can provide empirical background for thinking about fundamental questions of the relation of the subject and the world. There can be no fixed division between material things in the sensible world and cultural things of the world of expression.165
Through his years at the Sorbonne and Collège de France, Merleau-Ponty published several other works, which tended to be works of political theory or collections of essays on art and other themes, rather than major philosophical works like his first two books. These later books include Humanism and Terror and Adventures of the Dialectic, and Sense and Non-Sense and Signs. Two incomplete manuscripts were published posthumously: The Prose of the World and The Visible and the Invisible.166 Many assessments of Foucault and Merleau-Ponty concentrate on the books, and draw contrasts between a thinker in the phenomenological tradition, and one who sought to move beyond it.167 Indeed, Foucault sometimes uncritically groups Merleau-Ponty with Sartre as representatives of a tradition from which he wished to disassociate himself (i.e. DE#55 I, 662; FL 55; DE#109 II, 372; FL 98; DE#361 IV, 764; EW II, 467). But Merleau-Ponty’s lectures bridging psychology and philosophy are arguably more significant for Foucault’s early development.
Louis Althusser, Georges Canguilhem and the Agrégation
After the education in philosophy and psychology, the next stage of Foucault’s training was the extensive study required for the agrégation de philosophie, which would allow him to teach. It was through this examination that Foucault became close to Althusser and had his first significant encounter with Canguilhem. Althusser passed the agrégation himself in 1948, coming first on the written part and second on the oral, and immediately began teaching at the ENS.168 Althusser took the role of agrégé-répétiteur, a director of studies or ‘caïman’ in ENS-slang. As Alan Schrift notes, the meaning of caïman is contested, referring either to the Cayman Islands or a species of alligator used as a nickname for a cruel instructor.169 At the time Althusser was relatively unknown, and his major works all appeared some years later. Foucault attended some of Althusser’s courses, including one on ‘Le Droit’,170 which seems to be an earlier iteration of the work that informed Althusser’s short book on Montesquieu in 1959 and his courses on the history of political thought.171 Yet Althusser’s influence on Foucault was most significant in the training classes for the agrégation. Like many of his students, Foucault joined the PCF under his influence too (DE#281 IV, 50–1; EW III, 249–50).172
The agrégation comprised three written papers, usually scheduled for 8am to 3pm, on a Monday, Wednesday and Friday in a single week in the summer. The first two papers were on general themes in philosophy; the third was an historical one. These texts were then marked by two examiners, and between 1 in 4 and 1 in 6 students passed – admissibles. If they passed the written part, a couple of weeks later the candidate would then attend an oral exam where they had to speak on a topic chosen by lot from a number of potential themes, followed by another extemporized leçon (a grande and petite leçon) and commentaries on texts in modern and classical languages. For the leçon they were given six hours research time in the Sorbonne library, then had to present a fifty-minute lecture to the jury. The explication de texte required one French, one Latin, and one Greek, the last of which could be replaced by an English or German text. It was the language of the text on the programme, sometimes in translation, which was significant here. For the explication they were given one-hour’s preparation time and had to present for thirty minutes.173
The students had some prior knowledge of the thinkers and themes
