The proportion of lodgings in hotels as compared to those in campgrounds and other recognized “tourist accommodations” (holiday cottages, temporary rentals, vacation villages, and so on) can serve as a rough indicator for a first estimate of the proportion of high-end tourism: it is about 45 percent in France, where so-called open-air hotels play an important role. See “Le tourisme en Europe en 2015,” Insee première, no. 1610 (2016).51 51. Tourism is one of the elements that allow geographers to understand the connection between the phenomena of globalization and the processes of reinforcing collective identities: see Peter Burns, “Brief Encounters: Culture, Tourism, and the Local–Global Nexus,” in Salah Wahab and Chris Cooper, eds, Tourism in the Age of Globalization (Abingdon: Routledge, 2001), pp. 290–305.
52 52. International tourism represents a market of 1,200 billion dollars and contributes 9 percent to the world economy; see Frédéric Pierret, “Le tourisme est-il devenu un enjeu stratégique?” Annales des Mines – Réalités industrielles, no. 3 (2015): 9–13.
53 53. Veille info tourisme, Ministère de l’Artisanat, du Commerce et du Tourisme (www.veilleinfotourisme.fr/).
54 54. According to the assistant director of tourism in the office of tourism, commerce, arts and crafts, and services, Direction Générale des Entreprises (DGE), Ministère de l’Économie, de l’Industrie et du Numérique (interviewed by the authors, February 18, 2016).
55 55. Davezies, La République et ses territoires, p. 38.
56 56. DGE, available at www.veilleinfotourisme.fr/.
57 57. Pierret, “Le tourisme.”
58 58. In the European Union, the leading clientele is from Asia (39 percent of overnight stays), closely followed by the North American contingent (37 percent). The United Kingdom is the primary Asian destination; it attracts tourists especially from English-speaking countries and the Commonwealth; France and Italy come next. France draws more tourists from China and Japan than the other European countries: the rapidly growing Chinese clientele overtook the Japanese in 2012. See “Le tourisme en France,” Insee première.
59 59. Saskia Cousin and Bertrand Réau, Sociologie du tourisme (Paris: La Découverte, 2009), pp. 59–67.
60 60. Georges Panayotis, “Le tourisme français: un secteur économique majeur au fort potentiel,” Annales des Mines – Réalités industrielles, no. 3 (2015): 15–19.
61 61. On “experience management,” see B. Joseph Pine II and James H. Gilmore, The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre & Every Business a Stage (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999), esp. pp. 15–17.
62 62. The proportion of overnight stays by the sea in relation to the overall number of nights can serve as an indicator to distinguish, among the European countries that have the highest percentage of tourists (the proportion of overnight stays in relation to the resident population), those whose potential for tourism rests not only on their “cultural” assets but also on the prominence of their coastal regions and on favorable climates that allow for a longer tourist season. This is the case for Spain, which benefits both from cultural tourism and “sea-and-sun” tourism; the proportion of overnight stays on the coast (80 percent) is more than double the proportion in France (around 35 percent). Spain, where the number of nights increased by 3.3 percent between 2012 and 2015 (compared to 0.4 percent in France), attracts a large number of Northern Europeans, especially to its seaside resorts, and it has benefited from “reports detrimental to countries outside of Europe deemed ‘risky.’” More generally, the southern coasts attract most of the foreign tourists coming from Europe: see “Le tourisme en Europe,” Insee première.
63 63. Saskia Cousin, “L’Unesco et la doctrine du tourisme culturel: généalogie d’un ‘bon’ tourisme,” Civilisations, no. 57 (2008): 41–56.
64 64. For examples of the use of “the symbolics of travel” – an area in which writers such as Nicolas Bouvier and Bruce Chatwin are the current heroes – as instruments for critiquing the “tourism industry,” see among others Rodolphe Christin, L’usure du monde: critique de la déraison touristique (Montreuil: L’Échappée, 2014).
65 65. Cousin, “L’Unesco,” pp. 47–8.
66 66. The Malaga Chamber of Commerce, Le tourisme culturel en Méditerranée: quelques opportunités pour l’Espagne, la France, le Maroc, la Tunisie, in Invest in Med (Marseille: Etinet, Euromediterranean Tourist Network, 2011): 11.
67 67. See www.entrepriseetdecouverte.fr/.
68 68. Jonathan Friedman has analyzed the role played by tourism in the processes of identity affirmation that accompany globalization. For example, in the case of the Ainu people in northern Japan, the rearrangement of living spaces to make them conform better to the expectations of tourists seeking exoticism and the increased production of “traditional” objects for sale to tourists constitute “conscious strategies of identity reconstruction,” strategies that accompany calls for autonomy stressing ethnic specificity: see Jonathan Friedman, Cultural Identities and Global Process (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 109–13.
69 69. See Nelson Graburn, ed., Ethnic and Tourist Arts (Oakland: University of California Press, 1979); Paul van der Grijp, Art and Exoticism: An Anthropology of the Yearning for Authenticity (London: Transaction, 2009); and on authenticity as an argument for tourism, see Dennison Nash, Anthropology of Tourism (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1996).
70 70. More generally, for countries that draw a significant portion of their revenues from tourism, the demand for security plays a central role; it lies at the heart of professional preoccupations, as we have seen for example in countries such as Egypt and Tunisia, where heritage sites and museums have been targeted in particular.
71 71. See Gérôme Truc, Shellshocked: The Social Response to Terrorist Attacks, trans. Andrew Brown (Cambridge: Polity, 2017).
72 72. On the filming of television dramas in castles, see Sabine Chalvon-Demersay, “La saison des châteaux: une ethnographie des tournages en ‘décors réels’ pour la télévision,” Réseaux, no. 172 (2012): 175–213.
73 73. As is very often the case in this type of quantitative study, the figures obtained are approximate and thus debatable, in the sense that they depend on the nomenclatures used and the methods adopted – for example, in this case, the decision to include “indirect activities” in the count.
74 74. Serge Kancel, Jérôme Itty, Morgane Weill, and Bruno Durieux, L’apport de la culture à l’économie de la France (Paris: Inspection générale des finances, 2013).
75 75. Yves Jauneau and Xavier Niel, “Le poids économique direct de la culture en 2013,” Culture Chiffres, no. 5 (2014): 1–18.
76 76. By “audiovisual” we refer here to radio, cinema, television, video, and CDs.
77 77. Kancel et al., L’apport de la culture.
78 78. A commune is a French administrative unit corresponding to a village, city, or incorporated township.
79 79. The number of museums and monuments open to the public in France, inventoried in a guide published by the Éditions du Cherche-Midi, increased from 7,000 in the 1992 edition to 10,000 in 2001: see Josquin Barré, “L’impact de la variable prix dans le tourisme culturel,” in Jean-Michel Tobelem, ed., La culture mise à prix (Paris: L’Harmattan,
