a ...Figure 11.5 Examples of the various categories of invertebrate consumer in f...Figure 11.6 A general model of energy flow in a stream. A fraction of coarse...Figure 11.7 Comparing the biomasses of decomposers and detritivores during t...Figure 11.8 Relative roles of decomposers and detritivores in decomposition ...Figure 11.9 Boring insects facilitate fungal decomposers of wood. Relationsh...Figure 11.10 Leaf decomposition compared in different biomes. Average decomp...Figure 11.11 Distribution of climatic regions where soil animals can be expe...Figure 11.12 Decomposition rates vary with habitat type and detrital nutrien...Figure 11.13 The range of mechanisms that detritivores adopt for digesting c...Figure 11.14 Isopods enhance the decomposition of both leaf litter and the f...Figure 11.15 The action of flies and particularly dung beetles accelerates d...Figure 11.16 Release locations in Australia for five species of dung beetle ...Figure 11.17 Growth curves for the forensically important holarctic blowfly ...12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A range of parasites. (a) Plasmodium falciparum in a human blood...Figure 12.2 Aggregated distributions of parasite numbers per host. (a) Crayf...Figure 12.3 Many parasites are specialists, often attacking just one host sp...Figure 12.4 Patterns in the effect of transmission strategy on host specific...Figure 12.5 Parasites within hosts: simultaneously both predator and prey. A...Figure 12.6 Trade‐offs reveal the costs of defending against parasites....Figure 12.7 Th1 and Th2 trade‐offs in buffalo. (a) A negative correlat...Figure 12.8 Contrasting effects at the individual and population level of tr...Figure 12.9 Resistance, tolerance and virulence, showing the effects of para...Figure 12.10 Argentinian bird host species show contrasting combinations of ...Figure 12.11 Density‐dependent responses of parasites within their hosts....Figure 12.12 Host immune responses are necessary for density dependence in i...Figure 12.13 Competition between two worm species for a fruit‐fly host....Figure 12.14 Effects on microparasites of helminth coinfection in mice. The ...Figure 12.15 Positive and negative effects of coinfection in field voles. Th...Figure 12.16 The myxoma virus in European rabbits evolved from high to inter...Figure 12.17 Coevolution leading to rust fungus pathogens being more virulen...Figure 12.18 Antagonistic coevolution of the bacterial host, Pseudomonas flu...Figure 12.19 Transmission of cowpox virus in field voles was neither density...Figure 12.20 Local transmission of damping off disease in radishes leads to ...Figure 12.21 Superspreading events during outbreaks of six human diseases, a...Figure 12.22 The spread of damping off among radish plants is slowed down by...Figure 12.23 A dilution effect for the Lyme disease pathogen – or is it?...Figure 12.24 Harmful effects of fly larva parasitism on the medium ground fi...Figure 12.25 The effect of dodder, Cuscuta salina, on competition between Sa...Figure 12.26 Epidemic curves for Ebola virus disease. (a) Epidemic curves in...Figure 12.27 Cycles in the incidence of human infections. (a) Reported cases...Figure 12.28 Diseases with a greater R0require greater vaccination coverage....Figure 12.29 S‐shaped curves of the progress of diseases through crops from ...Figure 12.30 The spread of phocine distemper virus epidemics. (a) The spread...Figure 12.31 The spread of Dutch elm disease in North America from its intro...Figure 12.32 A protozoan parasite reduces the abundance of a beetle. Depress...Figure 12.33 Anther smut has a negative effect on the population growth rate...Figure 12.34 A nematode has detrimental effects on the survival and fecundit...Figure 12.35 Treatment against its nematode parasite reduces the amplitude o...Figure 12.36 Food and parasites combine to determine the abundance of white‐...
13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Plant interactions shift from competitive to facilitative in mor...Figure 13.2 Cleaner fish really do clean their clients. The mean number of g...Figure 13.3 ‘Cleaner' worms benefit large but not small crayfish, which groo...Figure 13.4 Ants provide their host plants with significant protection again...Figure 13.5 Ant species may compete in a competitive hierarchy for access to...Figure 13.6 Aphid colonies survive longer when attended by ants but only if ...Figure 13.7 When scale insect density is high, ants benefit coffee plants by...Figure 13.8 Life cycle of Maculinea arion. Adult butterflies oviposit on Thy...Figure 13.9 Evolutionary origins of five categories of fungus farming by ant...Figure 13.10 Restoration of vegetation increases the number of pollinator sp...Figure 13.11 The digestive tracts of herbivorous mammals are commonly modifi...Figure 13.12 Alterations in host characteristics associated with changes to ...Figure 13.13 Examples of insect guts showing the localisation of gut bacteri...Figure 13.14 Each of several insect groups has evolved an obligatory relatio...Figure 13.15 Three strategies for novel insect pest control. Each is based o...Figure 13.16 The coral microbiome, consisting of algal and bacterial symbion...Figure 13.17 There is a clear separation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal st...Figure 13.18 Plants will often be connected to each other by mycorrhizal net...Figure 13.19 Contrasting shapes of lichen thalli. (a) Coral‐like fruticose (...Figure 13.20 Phylogenetic affinities of nitrogen‐fixing bacteria and archaea...Figure 13.21 Development of the root nodule. Structural changes during the c...Figure 13.22 To prevent cheating by rhizobia, the soybean plant applies sanc...Figure 13.23 Relative importance of rhizobia and nitrogen fertiliser in the ...Figure 13.24 A model of bee–plant mutualisms is intrinsically unstable unles...
14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Population time series showing a range of patterns of abundance.Figure 14.2 Density‐dependent and ‐independent processes combine to determin...Figure 14.3 Key factor analysis of the sand dune annual plant Androsace sept...Figure 14.4 Increases in annual population growth rate (r = ln λ) with the a...Figure 14.5 Larch budmoth time series and their analysis through correlation...Figure 14.6 Analysis of microtine rodent population time series summarised a...Figure 14.7 The food web around the snowshoe hare. The major components of t...Figure 14.8 Analysis of flixweed and wasp population time series using corre...Figure 14.9 Analysis of population time series of kangaroo rats using linear...Figure 14.10 The two ‘competing’ theories for the generation of population c...Figure 14.11 Hare and lynx cycles. Regular cycles in the abundance of the sn...Figure 14.12 Survival and reproduction of the cyclic snowshoe hare. (a) Annu...Figure 14.13 The effects of stress hormones in the cyclic snowshoe hare. (a)...Figure 14.14 Analyses of model and microtine time series are consistent with...Figure 14.15 Effects of predation, dispersal and sociality on the dynamics o...Figure 14.16 A predator–prey zero isocline model with multiple equilibria....Figure 14.17 Possible examples of outbreaks and multiple equilibria. (a) The...
15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Uncontrolled pests typically exceed their economic injury level:...Figure 15.2 Pesticides can lead to target pest resurgence and secondary pest...Figure 15.3 The threat to skylark populations from GM sugar beet is greatest...Figure 15.4 There has been a steady rise, for more than half a century, in t...Figure 15.5 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) use and resistance to it have both r...Figure 15.6 Decision support systems allow flexible implementation of integr...Figure 15.7 Integrated farming systems and even fully organic farming can be...Figure 15.8 Fixed quota harvesting can achieve a maximum sustainable yield (...Figure 15.9 The Peruvian anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972 as a result of ...Figure 15.10 Fixed effort harvesting can deliver a stable maximum sustainabl...Figure 15.11 The discrepancy between official data from vessels with monitor...Figure 15.12 Density compensation following fixed proportional harvesting in...Figure 15.13 The economically optimum yield (EOY) is often lower than the ma...Figure 15.14 Profit sharing in the harvesting of teak can be adjusted so as ...Figure 15.15 Harvesting operations may have multiple equilibria. (a) When re...Figure 15.16 Depensation effects led to the sudden collapse and slow recover...Figure 15.17 The dynamic pool approach to fishery harvesting and management,...Figure 15.18 Peak (optimal) fishery yields around China are obtained at inte...Figure 15.19 Reducing mesh size to allow smaller North Sea cod to escape lea...Figure 15.20 The mean trophic level (MTL) of fisheries catches have appeared...Figure 15.21 Mean trophic level (MTL) in catches shows a variety of trends i...Figure 15.22 Freshwater fish in North America and amphibians worldwide illus...Figure 15.23 Most of the estimated 10 million‐plus species of eukaryotes rem...Figure 15.24 The categorisation of a species’ risk of extinction changes as ...Figure 15.25 Populations of Finnish butterflies are more likely to go extinc...Figure 15.26 Highly inbred pink pigeons from Mauritius have significantly re...Figure 15.27 Population density and habitat range are the most powerful pred...Figure 15.28 Loss of elephants to ivory poachers can be successfully resiste...Figure 15.29 Forest cover is being lost throughout the world and from all bi...Figure 15.30 Even with conservative predictions, many Australian butterfly s...Figure 15.31 Invasive species are the second greatest threat to bird species...Figure 15.32 Chytrid
