5.4 Density‐dependent fecundity. (a) The fecundity (seeds per p...Figure 5.5 Density‐dependent growth. The mean length of monarch butter...Figure 5.6 Plants sown at a range of densities often grow to achieve a const...Figure 5.7 The ‘constant final yield’ of plants illustrated by a line of slo...Figure 5.8 Intraspecific competition in plants often regulates the number of...Figure 5.9 Optimal sowing rates can conserve rare weedy plants without threa...Figure 5.10 When modular organisms compete, the modules closest to neighbour...Figure 5.11 The use of k values for describing patterns of density‐dependent...Figure 5.12 Density‐dependent birth and mortality rates lead to the regulati...Figure 5.13 Intraspecific competition typically generates n‐shaped net recru...Figure 5.14 Some dome‐shaped net‐recruitment curves. (a) Six‐mon...Figure 5.15 Real examples of S‐shaped population increase. (a) The bac...Figure 5.16 The global urban population has overtaken its rural counterpart ...Figure 5.17 The global human population grew slowly for millennia but has re...Figure 5.18 The birth and death rates in Europe since 1850. The annual net r...Figure 5.19 What happens to the global human population size depends on futu...Figure 5.20 Mathematical models of population increase. (a) In populations w...Figure 5.21 The intraspecific competition inherent in Equation 5.13. The fin...Figure 5.22 The intraspecific competition inherent in Equation 5.19. The fin...Figure 5.23 The range of population fluctuations generated by Equation5.19. ...Figure 5.24 Populations in stochastic models may have a high chance of going...Figure 5.25 Exponential (solid line) and sigmoidal (dashed line) increase in...Figure 5.26 Intraspecific competition increases the skewing in the distribut...Figure 5.27 Intraspecific competition increases the skewing in the distribut...Figure 5.28 Size inequalities first increase then decrease in competing popu...Figure 5.29 Root and shoot competition can have contrasting effects on mean ...Figure 5.30 Asymmetric competition enhances population size regulation in an...Figure 5.31 The number of (successful) territories may increase at higher re...Figure 5.32 Territory sizes occupied by male lions (Panthera leo) in Zimbabw...Figure 5.33 Older individuals hold the territories in a black kite populatio...Figure 5.34 ‘Dear enemy’ and ‘nasty neighbour’ effects....Figure 5.35 The importance of good territories for the conservation of beard...Figure 5.36 Crowded plant populations typically approach and then track self...Figure 5.37 Self‐thinning in a wide variety of herbs and trees. Each l...Figure 5.38 The species boundary line for populations of red pine,Pinus dens...Figure 5.39 Self‐thinning lines vary in their support for the metabolic theo...Figure 5.40 A density management diagram (DMD) for Norway spruce in central‐...6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The movements of locusts and their impending threat. An example f...Figure 6.2 Variation in physical and biotic variables in the Santuit River, ...Figure 6.3 The optimal location of nature reserves for giant pandas in China...Figure 6.4 The ‘seed rains’ of four tree species from a temperate rainforest...Figure 6.5 Predicting an outbreak of bluetongue virus. Results from the mode...Figure 6.6 Seed dispersal by frugivores can show a variety of patterns. The ...Figure 6.7 Birds and moths reflect contrasting combinations of active and pa...Figure 6.8 Phalanx‐type plants aggregate locally and co‐occur little with ot...Figure 6.9 Three generalised spatial patterns that may be exhibited by organ...Figure 6.10 The ‘grain’ of the environment must be seen from the perspective...Figure 6.11 Group living protects against predation in the chestnut‐crowned ...Figure 6.12 Inbreeding and outbreeding depression in Delphinium nelsonii. (a...Figure 6.13 Kin competition may drive offspring away from their natal habita...Figure 6.14 Density‐dependent emigration in spiders and mites. In labo...Figure 6.15 Plants staying at home in bad years and dispersing in good years...Figure 6.16 Dispersal polymorphisms. (a) The mean proportion (± SE) of winge...Figure 6.17 The proportion of male‐biased as opposed to female‐biased disper...Figure 6.18 The rapid spread of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgif...Figure 6.19 Dispersal drives the local distribution of a sand‐dune plant....Figure 6.20 Flying squirrels in Finland preferentially occupy habitat favour...Figure 6.21 The predictable dispersal of zebra mussels, invading the USA. (a...Figure 6.22 Invasion of the giant hogweed. The changing distribution over ti...Figure 6.23 Butterflies tend to occupy the largest, least isolated habitat p...Figure 6.24 Identifying priority North American butterfly species for conser...Figure 6.25 The spatial structure of a metapopulation affects its overall ab...Figure 6.26 Applications of species distribution modelling. (a) Ecological niche mo...Figure 6.27 Many subpopulations of a bee metapopulation go extinct from year...Figure 6.28 Mainland–island metapopulations of a butterfly with contrasting ...Figure 6.29 A plant metapopulation. (a) Locations of the subpopulations, on ...Figure 6.30 Hanski’s metapopulation of the Glanville fritillary. (a) M...Figure 6.31 Alternative stable states for the Glanville fritillary metapopul...Figure 6.32 Genetic effects on the dynamics of the Glanville fritillary meta...Figure 6.33 Contractions in the ranges of four bird species that have especi...Figure 6.34 The changing distribution of the giant panda in China that will ...
7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Studies of selection show a tendency for larger body size to be f...Figure 7.2 Allocations of dry matter and nitrogen to the parts of a plant va...Figure 7.3 Reproductive value generally rises and then falls with age. (a) T...Figure 7.4 Life history trade‐offs demonstrate the costs of reproduction....Figure 7.5 The ‘Y model’ of de Jong and van Noordwijk ( 1992). T...Figure 7.6 Snakes that produced larger litters also recovered quicker from r...Figure 7.7 A trade‐off between growth and survival in sticklebacks. Su...Figure 7.8 Trade‐offs between the number of offspring produced in a clutch b...Figure 7.9 Crop plant species differ in the relative responses of seed numbe...Figure 7.10 Options sets and fitness contours together determining optimal l...Figure 7.11 Optimal life histories in high and low cost of reproduction
