as ind...Figure 7.13 Effects of predation risk on patterns of reproduction in killifi...Figure 7.14 The ‘degree’ of semelparity in the plant Lobelia inflata depends...Figure 7.15 The optimisation of offspring size and number in a clutch or lit...Figure 7.16 Guppies produce fewer, larger offspring in a more highly competi...Figure 7.17 The optimisation of offspring size and number in a clutch or lit...Figure 7.18 Recruitment from great tit, Parus major, nests is highest from n...Figure 7.19 Evidence for an intermediate, Lack clutch (litter) size in lynx,...Figure 7.20 Evidence for r‐ and K‐selection in dandelions. Resul...Figure 7.21 A fast–slow continuum explains life history variation in plants,...Figure 7.22 A fast–slow continuum explains life history variation in mammals...Figure 7.23 The fast–slow continuum can help guide conservation priorities i...Figure 7.24 Grime’s CSR triangle as an organising principle for plant life h...Figure 7.25 Grime’s CSR triangle and dark diversity as a guide to conserving...Figure 7.26 Allometric life history relationships, all plotted on log scales...Figure 7.27 Allometric relationships between total clutch volume and body vo...Figure 7.28 Phylogenetic comparative methods, taking account of shared ances...Figure 7.29 Allometry, phylogeny and the fast–slow continuum combine to make...8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Competition between phytoplankton species for phosphorus: winners...Figure 8.2 In competition between grass species, the winner was the one that...Figure 8.3 When together, white‐spotted charr perform consistently better th...Figure 8.4 When two diatom species compete for two resources, each persists ...Figure 8.5 Warblers protected from interspecific competition fledge more you...Figure 8.6 Competition between unrelated species: sea urchins with fish, and...Figure 8.7 The paradox of the plankton. The influential dataset of planktoni...Figure 8.8 Allelopathy – and its price in terms of increased predation – bet...Figure 8.9 The zero isoclines generated by the Lotka–Volterra competition eq...Figure 8.10 The outcomes of competition generated by the Lotka–Volterra comp...Figure 8.11 The zero net growth isocline of a species potentially limited by...Figure 8.12 Competitive exclusion and coexistence in models with zero net gr...Figure 8.13 Coexistence of competitors sharing a resource is facilitated whe...Figure 8.14 Two species of rotifers competing for two species of alga coexis...Figure 8.15 Grasses exhibit a trade‐off between resource‐use effectiveness a...Figure 8.16 The diversity of competing phytoplankton species increases with ...Figure 8.17 Root and shoot competition between maize and pea plants. Above a...Figure 8.18 Competitor coexistence depends on both niche overlap and competi...Figure 8.19 Resource utilisation curves for three species coexisting along a...Figure 8.20 The effect of niche similarity on competitor coexistence. The ra...Figure 8.21 Ant species in Kenya vary greatly in their colonisation ability,...Figure 8.22 Competitive outcome determined by a priority effect. Survival ti...Figure 8.23 Diatom species coexist as a result of fluctuations in their envi...Figure 8.24 Coexistence of four marine invertebrate species is enhanced by a...Figure 8.25 Coexistence of plant species in agri‐environment schemes is enha...Figure 8.26 Environmental heterogeneity can enhance the coexistence of compe...Figure 8.27 In terms of the signs of their interactions, competition and app...Figure 8.28 Evidence for apparent competition for predator‐free space at San...Figure 8.29 Apparent competition from beachgrass threatens lupine conservati...Figure 8.30 Red squirrel populations are threatened by squirrelpox (SQPx) vi...Figure 8.31 A substitutive experiment on interspecific competition between P...Figure 8.32 A substitutive design demonstrates competition among microbes in...Figure 8.33 An additive design demonstrates little effect of other species o...Figure 8.34 Response surface analysis demonstrates the effects of intercropp...Figure 8.35 The diets of ocelots demonstrate competitive release in the abse...Figure 8.36 Character displacement in the canine teeth of Indian mongooses. ...Figure 8.37 Apparent character displacement in the body size of mud snails a...Figure 8.38 An experimental manipulation demonstrates evolution in clover in...Figure 8.39 Experimental evolution of niche differentiation in Pseudomonas. ...Figure 8.40 Experimental evolution of competitive ability in a protozoan. Wh...
9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Coupled oscillations in the abundance of predators and prey. (a) ...Figure 9.2 Predators tend to prefer more profitable food types but may modif...Figure 9.3 Switching of preferences by predators depends on the relative abu...Figure 9.4 Studies of optimal diet choice showing a clear but limited corres...Figure 9.5 The foraging behaviour of bluegill sunfish changes in the presenc...Figure 9.6 The phylogenies of Peruvian Lepidoptera map badly onto the phylog...Figure 9.7 Demonstrable costs of plant defence against herbivores. (a) Diffe...Figure 9.8 A meta‐analysis of studies of the frequency of production of qual...Figure 9.9 Passionfruit investment in extrafloral nectaries is increased by ...Figure 9.10 Limited support for the cross‐talk hypothesis between JA‐ and SA...Figure 9.11 Root and shoot herbivory inducing different patterns of root and...Figure 9.12 Snails induce a defensive response in seaweeds that protects the...Figure 9.13 Responses to herbivory (but not simulated herbivory) reduced sub...Figure 9.14 Landraces of maize frequently make an inducible defence response...Figure 9.15 Constitutive levels of defence were high in valuable wild radish...Figure 9.16 Maximum levels of defence at intermediate rates of fertiliser ap...Figure 9.17 Bark beetles prefer non‐stressed pine seedlings but the stressed...Figure 9.18 Silicate supplementation can help ameliorate the harmful effects...Figure 9.19 Rapid compensatory regrowth of an invasive seaweed following her...Figure 9.20 Herbivory affects the outcome of competition between two plant s...Figure 9.21 Drastic effects of repeated defoliation. The effects of the freq...Figure 9.22 An aphid pest’s development is speeded up, and its efficiency in...Figure 9.23 Plant fecundity can be affected by herbivory even when there is ...Figure 9.24 The importance of the timing of herbivory. (a) Clipping of field...Figure 9.25 Some meta‐analyses of herbivory. (a) The effects of sap fe...Figure 9.26 Mimicry in butterflies. (a) Larva of the monarch butterfly, Dana...Figure 9.27 Chemical defence in a sponge. Results of field assays assessing ...Figure 9.28 Snail shell architecture varies with predation risk. Three‐dimen...Figure 9.29 The effects of predation may vary with food availability. Trajec...Figure 9.30 Goshawks preying on owls mostly take those least likely to contr...Figure 9.31 Predators have more effect on the fecundity of ground squirrels ...
10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 The Lotka–Volterra predator–prey model. (a) The prey...Figure 10.2 Delayed density dependence. (a) A parasitoid–host model followed...Figure 10.3 A type 1 functional response, illustrated for Azteca sericeasur ...Figure 10.4 Type 2 functional responses. (a) Tenth‐instar damselfly nymphs (Figure 10.5 Type 3 (sigmoidal) functional responses. (a) The paper wasp, Pol...Figure 10.6 Masting in grasses and its negative effect on predation. (a) The...Figure 10.7 Periodical cicadas satiate their predators and so avoid high rat...Figure 10.8 The composition of the food of cotton rats, Sigmodon hispidus, i...Figure 10.9 Mutual interference leads to a reduction in predation rates with...Figure 10.10 Prey and predator zero isoclines that incorporate crowding, and...Figure 10.11 Prey and predator zero isoclines that incorporate a type 3 func...Figure 10.12 Population fluctuations of both moths and voles are more pronou...Figure 10.13 Possible effects of a ‘humped’ prey isocline, either as a resul...Figure 10.14 Schematic model of the role of non‐consumptive effects in preda...Figure 10.15 Aggregative responses of predators and parasitoids. (a) Black‐t...Figure 10.16 The behaviour of caddis fly larvae leads to their aggregation i...Figure 10.17 The marginal value theorem. (a) When a forager enters a patch, ...Figure 10.18 Experiments with parasitoids provide qualified support for the ...Figure 10.19 Optimal foraging by penguins feeding on patches of krill provid...Figure 10.20 Patterns of plant root growth provide support for the marginal ...Figure 10.21 The use of patches differing in resource richness by mice is mo...Figure 10.22 Layout of a foraging experiment with chacma baboons. Two separa...Figure 10.23 Ducks provide support for the ideal free distribution. (a) When...Figure 10.24 The effect of the interference coefficient, m, on the expected ...Figure 10.25 The aggregative responses of parasitoids and the aggregation of...Figure 10.26 A metapopulation structure increases the persistence of predato...Figure 10.27 A metapopulation structure increases the persistence of predato...Figure 10.28 The stability (persistence) of a ciliate predator–prey metapopu...Figure 10.29 The complex interactions between density‐dependence, aggregatio...
11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Zonation of microbial communities in marine sediment habitats. S...Figure 11.2 Changes in the chemical composition of oak leaf litter and its a...Figure 11.3 Size classification by body width of organisms in terrestrial de...Figure 11.4 The positive effects
