vortex in principle and in action in Swedish sou...Figure 15.34 Few pollinators, no bird pollinators and low recruitment of new...Figure 15.35 Persistence times of different‐sized bighorn sheep populations ...Figure 15.36 Populations of Silene regia not managed by burning are most lik...Figure 15.37 The VORTEX model correctly predicts declining and stable popula...Figure 15.38 Optimal strategies for conserving an emu‐wren metapopulation de...Figure 15.39 Large areas in the east of Midwestern USA are likely to be occu...Figure 15.40 Strategic dropping of patches from or adding of patches to a ne...Figure 15.41 New building can be discouraged in habitats where the flow of s...Figure 15.42 Conservation decisions are often taken, ultimately, as the end ...Figure 15.43 A decision tree for the management of the Sumatran rhinoceros g...16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Selected community modules. In all cases arrows indicate the eff...Figure 16.2 Interspecific competition (d < 0) affects phytophagous insects i...Figure 16.3 Niche complementarity in anemone fish is apparent both in terms ...Figure 16.4 Niche complementarity in Macaranga trees in Borneo. (a) Percenta...Figure 16.5 Niche complementarity in tundra plants. Mean uptake of available...Figure 16.6 Null modelling supports a role for competition in structuring li...Figure 16.7 Neutral models are better than niche‐based models in their abili...Figure 16.8 Community‐wide character displacement in barnacles: leg le...Figure 16.9 Checkerboard distribution of two small Macropygia cuckoo‐dove sp...Figure 16.10 The distributions of species pairs are often negatively associa...Figure 16.11 Shared‐predator community modules with varying interaction stre...Figure 16.12 Predicted extinction times for the medium ground finch on Santa...Figure 16.13 Plant species richness is highest at intermediate levels of gra...Figure 16.14 Grazing reduces species richness in nutrient‐poor ecosystems bu...Figure 16.15 Grazing increases species richness in high‐productivity sites b...Figure 16.16 A meta‐analysis of studies testing the Janzen–Connell hypothesi...Figure 16.17 Lizards reduce species richness of spiders by preying on rare s...Figure 16.18 Support for the stress‐gradient hypothesis. (a) Left: var...Figure 16.19 The effects of species interactions in structuring a plant comm...
17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 A trophic cascade in an intertidal community. When birds are exc...Figure 17.2 Trophic cascades in four‐level food chains – which may sometimes...Figure 17.3 A rare trophic cascade extending beyond four levels to nitrate u...Figure 17.4 Mesopredator release (of foxes and cats by removing dingoes) thr...Figure 17.5 Bottom‐up control of a food web in Brazil. The responses o...Figure 17.6 Meta‐analyses of manipulation studies of top‐down and bottom‐up ...Figure 17.7 The community module underlying the apparent trophic cascade hyp...Figure 17.8 A test supporting the Apparent Trophic Cascade Hypothesis. (a–e)...Figure 17.9 The keystone status of sea otters along the Pacific coast of Nor...Figure 17.10 Humans are hyper‐keystone species in the Pacific north‐west of ...Figure 17.11 Effect of species richness on the temporal variability of popul...Figure 17.12 Species richness stabilises grassland productivity through over...Figure 17.13 The stability of salmon catch biomass in Canada is greater when...Figure 17.14 Robustness increases with connectance following simulated extin...Figure 17.15 Population stability shows no or a positive correlation with sp...Figure 17.16 Compartmentalisation stabilises food webs. (a) Potential effect...Figure 17.17 Separate compartments in a Caribbean marine food web arise beca...Figure 17.18 Weak links in long trophic loops stabilise food webs. (a) Loops...Figure 17.19 The calculation of food chain length. Food web of an exposed in...Figure 17.20 Adaptive foraging shortens food chain length in a simulation mo...Figure 17.21 Food chains are longer when productivity is higher in simple ar...Figure 17.22 A meta‐analysis supports the importance of productive space and...Figure 17.23 Food chain length in the Bahamas increases with ecosystem size ...Figure 17.24 Parasites decrease the robustness of food webs (slightly). Food...Figure 17.25 Figurative representation of a stability landscape giving rise ...Figure 17.26 Evidence for regime shifts in the states of aquatic communities...Figure 17.27 Slow regime shifts in the Caribbean from coral‐dominated to cor...Figure 17.28 Distribution of permafrost at high northern latitudes and the a...
18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 The relationships among four types of species pools and four cla...Figure 18.2 A community can be defined at any scale. We can identify a hiera...Figure 18.3 The relationship between species richness and the number of indi...Figure 18.4 Species diversity (H) and equitability (J) decline progressively...Figure 18.5 Rank–abundance patterns of various models. (a) GS, geometr...Figure 18.6 Multimodal, monomodal and monotonic size spectra. (a) The multim...Figure 18.7 Under environmental pressures size spectra become steeper. Under...Figure 18.8 Three contrasting descriptions of distributions of the character...Figure 18.9 Examples of ordination of community composition. (a) Results of ...Figure 18.10 Distribution of sampling sites on lava flows of different ages ...Figure 18.11 Later successional species are capable of germinating in young ...Figure 18.12 Successional patterns in an arable grassland chronosequence. (a...Figure 18.13 Predicted changes in relative abundance of forest trees in Puer...Figure 18.14 Example of a successional niche – early conditions suit early s...Figure 18.15 Nurse plants facilitate seedling survival in forest restorationFigure 18.16 Protection from browsing mammals by a tree guard increased thic...Figure 18.17 Support for the intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Relationsh...Figure 18.18 Colonisation patterns in patches of different size and shape. (...Figure 18.19 Frequency distribution of gaps created by lightning in a tropic...Figure 18.20 Butterflies profit from overstory reduction and slash mulching.Figure 18.21 Three‐dimensional classification of four paradigms of metacommu...Figure 18.22 Illustration of a competition–colonisation trade‐off....Figure 18.23 Dispersal rate affects species richness in a metacommunity. (a)...
19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Biodiversity has declined despite an increase in protected areas...Figure 19.2 Rarefaction and extrapolation as ways of estimating species rich...Figure 19.3 A simple model of species richness. Each species utilises a port...Figure 19.4 Species richness increases with productivity in fish, ants and r...Figure 19.5 Species richness decreases with productivity in British plants. ...Figure 19.6 Butterfly densities are highest on nature reserves, but higher o...Figure 19.7 Humped relationships between species richness and productivity. ...Figure 19.8 Studies of richness–productivity relationships show a range of o...Figure 19.9 Diversity–productivity relationships for aquatic communities cha...Figure 19.10 At broad scales, species richness increases with environmental ...Figure 19.11 Species richness increases with both productivity and energy in...Figure 19.12 Species richness increases with the spatial or structural heter...Figure 19.13 Species richness is lower in ‘harsher’ (lower pH) environments....Figure 19.14 Species–area relationships showing species richness increasing ...Figure 19.15 MacArthur and Wilson’s ( 1967) Equilibrium Theory of Isla...Figure 19.16 Increases of species richness with area are sometimes related t...Figure 19.17 An artificial reduction in island area (but not habitat diversi...Figure 19.18 The intercepts of species–area relationships are typically lowe...Figure 19.19 Species richness tends to decrease on islands the more isolated...Figure 19.20 Islands may lack species because they have not had time to colo...Figure 19.21 A constancy of species richness may hide a turnover of individu...Figure 19.22 Island turnover is dominated by rare species at short timescale...Figure 19.23 The proportion of specialist species is low on small islands, r...Figure 19.24 The proportion of endemics on an island increases with island i...Figure 19.25 Graphical summary of the general dynamic model of ocean island ...Figure 19.26 Speciation rates first rise then decline as islands emerge and ...Figure 19.27 A simple recipe for species conservation. Arrows from A to B si...Figure 19.28 Species richness increases with habitat connectivity, habitat a...Figure 19.29 A single large site in Finland supports fewer plant species tha...Figure 19.30 Species richness is higher nearer to the equator (and lower nea...Figure 19.31 Mammal and amphibian species richness is better predicted by th...Figure 19.32 New species of woody flowering plants predominantly remain in t...Figure 19.33 Species richness may decrease, increase or show a hump‐shaped r...Figure 19.34 Mid‐elevation peaks in species richness of geometrid moths are ...Figure 19.35 Brittle stars in shallow seas show peak richness near the equat...Figure 19.36 Marine‐protected areas in coral reef regions. These have ...Figure 19.37 Animal species richness tends to increase during successions, t...Figure 19.38 Protected areas are concentrated more in the ‘rich world’, espe...Figure 19.39 Just six areas in Western Australia would conserve 95% of the f...Figure 19.40 An example of irreplaceability analysis. Map of South Africa’s ...Figure 19.41 Developing
