δὲ δείξατέ μοι, εἴ τινα ἔχητε. ποῦ ἢ πῶς; . . . τίς οὖν ἐστι Στωικός; ὡς λέγομεν ἀνδριάντα Φειδιακὸν τὸν τετυπωμένον κατὰ τὴν τέχνην τὴν Φειδίου, οὕτως τινά μοι δείξατε κατὰ τὰ δόγματα ἃ λαλεῖ τετυπωμένον.
Despite learning Stoicism in his school, because of their actions Epictetus claims that his pupils are actually the adherents of the Epicurean school (i.e., they are seeking pleasure48), and he later scolds them for failing to exhibit progress in conquering their desires, or in managing their feelings of jealousy or anger, by asking: “why do you dress in a [philosophical] dress that is not yours, and walk around in it, as thieves and robbers who have stolen titles and properties that do not belong to them?” καὶ περιθέμενοι σχῆμα ἀλλότριον περιπατεῖτε κλέπται καὶ λωποδύται τούτων τῶν οὐδὲν προσηκόντων ὀνομάτων καὶ πραγμάτων.49 Again, it can be seen from this passage, as well as other similar remarks that could be highlighted,50 that praxis and philosophical identity are firmly interwoven for Epictetus: it is behavior that he believes truly evinces where a person’s philosophical allegiances lie and which reveal what philosophical commitments actually shape/mold them (τετυπωμένον). This connection is also demonstrated by Epictetus’ frequently expressed concern to censure individuals who pursue philosophy because they are interested in feasting, impressing a senator or family member, learning witty phrases, or obtaining financial gain.
It is notable that Epictetus even appears to suggest to his students that if they cannot bear to align their behavior with philosophy’s standards, then they should vacate his school,51 and he candidly states that if they are only interested in learning the history and theory of philosophy, instead of how to apply it truths to their lives, then they should realize that they are like children,52 and are training to become a literary scholar/grammarian (γραμματικός) and not a philosopher (φιλόσοφος).53 For example, in one passage Epictetus argues whether it is one of his student’s habit/custom (ἔθος) to read books without giving recourse to consider how the teachings that are contained within them should impact their life: “I ask him to go home straight away and to not neglect his affairs there, for he has travelled here for nothing,” λέγω αὐτῷ αὐτόθεν πορεύεσθαι εἰς οἶκον καὶ μὴ ἀμελεῖν τῶν ἐκεῖ: τοῦτο γὰρ ἐφ᾽ ὃ ἀποδεδήμηκεν οὐδέν ἐστιν.54 When considering Epictetus’ language use, it can be seen that the intended effect of his critique is amplified, as he characteristically uses ἔθος as a way to refer to thinking or an action that is done without reasoned deliberation.55 Meanwhile, in another passage a hypothetical student who is portrayed as being solely interested in scholastic endeavors likewise has his continued presence in the school challenged, with Epictetus remarking to him: “Speak the truth then, you unfortunate thing, and do not put on airs and claim to be a philosopher. . . . leave this [true philosophy] to those people who are prepared for it, those with confidence. As for you, return to your own affairs, and never depart from them again,” λέγε οὖν τὰ ἀληθῆ, δύστηνε, καὶ μὴ ἀλαζονεύου μηδὲ φιλόσοφος . . . σὺ δ᾽ ἐπὶ τὰ σαυτοῦ βάδιζε καὶ ἐκείνων ἀποστῇς μηδέποτε.56 It should be noted that the word for “claim” here, ἀλαζονεύομα, is not a morally neutral one, but is used to designate misleading, deceptive claims.
Following his teacher Rufus,57 Epictetus also advocates bringing to light (δείκνυμι) a false philosopher not by having any deficiencies that exist in their comprehension of philosophical theory highlighted, but rather by their failure to let its teachings impact upon their lives:
From this conduct it can be observed what sort of person you are; why do you want to display it in any other way? Do you not know that Diogenes showed up one of the sophists in such a manner, by pointing at him with his middle finger, and when the man became enraged at that, Diogenes said: “That is the man; I have pointed him out to you.”58
βλέπεται ἐξ αὐτῶν τούτων. τί θέλεις ἐξ ἄλλων δεῖξαι; οὐκ οἶδας, ὅτι Διογένης τῶν σοφιστῶν τινα οὕτως ἔδειξεν ἐκτείνας τὸν μέσον δάκτυλον, εἶτα ἐκμανέντος αὐτοῦ ‘οὗτός ἐστιν,’ ἔφη, ‘ὁ δεῖνα: ἔδειξα ὑμῖν αὐτόν.
In another passage, Epictetus imagines an individual who has not apprehended that improper behavior disqualifies someone from being a philosopher—regardless of whether they style themselves as one or not. Instead of looking to appearances, Epictetus argues that it is a person’s actions that will reveal if they are a philosopher:
But he [the person who views an apparent philosopher’s misdeeds] should rather have said, on the evidence of the indecent behavior, that he was not a philosopher at all. For, if this is the preconception of what a philosopher is and his profession, namely to wear a cloak and have long hair, they would be correct; but, if it is to keep himself free from faults, why, when he does not meet the demands of his profession, do they not remove the appellation of philosopher from him?59
ἔδει δ᾽ ἀφ᾽ ὧν ἠσχημόνει μᾶλλον λέγειν αὐτὸν μὴ εἶναι φιλόσοφον. εἰ μὲν γὰρ αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ τοῦ φιλοσόφου πρόληψις καὶ ἐπαγγελία, ἔχειν τρίβωνα καὶ κόμην, καλῶς ἂν ἔλεγον: εἰ δ᾽ ἐκείνη μᾶλλον, ἀναμάρτητον εἶναι, διὰ τί οὐχὶ διὰ τὸ μὴ πληροῦν τὴν ἐπαγγελίαν ἀφαιροῦνται αὐτὸν τῆς προσηγορίας; οὕτως γὰρ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων τεχνῶν.
It is within this context of prioritizing inner resolve and its accompanying actions, instead of mere appearances, that Epictetus elsewhere approvingly highlights that the Stoic Euphrates did not (as Epictetus appears to have done60) adopt the dress of a philosopher, but was instead happy to live as a philosopher should.61 Finally, on this topic I suggest that it is worthwhile to give Discourse II.23, which is entitled To Those Who Read and Dispute/Declaim for Display (πρὸς τοὺς ἀναγιγνώσκaοντας καὶ διαλεγομένους ἐπιδεικτικῶς), extended consideration. Within this discourse no epithet is used to describe the type of people who Epictetus has in view, but he portrays them as styling themselves in fine robes, speaking from rostrums that are in spacious and well-attended lecture halls, and humoring their audiences’ desires in order to obtain praise (ἐπαινέω) and shouts of “bravo” (οὐά) from them.62 The discourse is lengthy, but its tone and purpose are well summarized in its closing lines:
But tell me, who,
